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Anatomy and Physiology > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrine cells release
secretions into ———–

A

extracellular fluid

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2
Q

Endocrine cells and
tissues produce about ——– , and it ——- and
——– body processes

A
  • 30 different hormones
    (chemical messengers)
  • Controls and
    coordinates
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3
Q

Mechanisms of intercellular
communication……

A
  • Direct communication
  • Paracrine communication
  • Autocrine communication
  • Endocrine communication
  • Synaptic communication
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4
Q
  • Exchange of ions and
    molecules between
    adjacent cells across
    gap junctions
    – Occurs between two
    cells of the same type
    – Highly specialized and
    relatively rare
A

Direct communication

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5
Q

Chemical signals
transfer information
from cell to cell within a
single tissue

A

Paracrine communication

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6
Q

Messages affect the same cells that secrete them

A

Autocrine communication

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7
Q

examples of Autocrine hormones

A

E.g., prostaglandins secreted by smooth muscle
cells cause the same cells to contract

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8
Q
  • Endocrine cells release chemicals (hormones) that
    are transported in bloodstream
  • Alters metabolic activities of many organs
A

Endocrine communication

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9
Q
  • Neurons release neurotransmitters at a synapse
  • Leads to action potentials that are propagated along
    axons
  • Allows for high-speed “messages” to reach specific
    destinations
  • Ideal for crisis management
A

Synaptic communication

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10
Q

Function of Hormones

A
  • Change types, quantities, or activities of enzymes and
    structural proteins in target cells
  • Can alter metabolic activities of multiple tissues and
    organs at the same time
  • Affect long-term processes like growth and
    development
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11
Q

Classes of hormones

A

Amino acid derivatives
Peptide hormones
Lipid derivatives

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12
Q

Not lipid soluble
Unable to penetrate plasma membrane
Bind to receptor proteins on outer surface of plasma
membrane (extracellular receptors)

A

Catecholamines and peptide hormones

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13
Q

Lipid soluble
Diffuse across plasma membrane and bind to
receptors inside cell (intracellular receptors)

A

Steroid and thyroid hormones

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14
Q

What are The Classes of hormones

A

1-Amino acid derivatives
2- Peptide hormone
3- Lipid derivatives

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15
Q

Derivatives of tyrosine

A
  • Thyroid hormones
  • Catecholamines
    (epinephrine,
    norepinephrine, and
    dopamine)
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16
Q

Derivatives of tryptophan

A

Serotonin and melatonin

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17
Q

Most are synthesized as pro-hormones, Inactive molecules converted to active hormones before or after they are secreted

A

Peptide hormones

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18
Q

Proteins more than 200 amino acids
long that have carbohydrate side
chains (e.g., TSH, LH, FSH)

A

Glycoproteins

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19
Q

Insulin, GF, ADH, OXT, PLC

A

Short polypeptides/small proteins

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20
Q

——- derived from arachidonic acid, a 20-
carbon fatty acid

A

Eicosanoids

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21
Q

——- coordinate local cellular activities
Converted to thromboxanes and ——– in some tissues

A

Prostaglandins
prostacyclins

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22
Q

—— derived from cholesterol
Include:

A

Steroid hormones
- Androgens from testes in males
- Estrogens and progesterone from varies in females
- Corticosteroids from adrenal cortex
- Calcitriol from kidneys

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23
Q

They are bounded to specific transport proteins in the plasma and remain in circulation longer than peptide hormones

A

Steroid hormones

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24
Q

Free hormones remain functional for less than an hour and
are inactivated when they;

A
  • Diffuse out of bloodstream and bind to receptors on
    target cells,
    – Are absorbed and broken down by liver or kidneys,
    – Are broken down by enzymes in blood or interstitial fluids
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25
Q

Binding of a hormone to its receptors may;

A
  • Alter genetic activity
  • Alter rate of protein synthesis
  • Change membrane permeability
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26
Q

——– is an Enzyme complex coupled to
membrane receptor and Involved in link between first messenger and second messenger

A

G protein

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27
Q

Intermediary molecule that appears due to
hormone–receptor interaction
May act as enzyme activator, inhibitor, or cofactor Results in change in rates of metabolic reactions
* E.g., cAMP, cGMP, Ca2+

A

Second messenger

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28
Q

Steps involved in increasing cAMP level, which
accelerates metabolic activity of cell

A

1- Hormone binds to receptor
2- G Protein activation due to the receptor-hormone interaction
3- Activated G protein activates adenylate cyclase
4- Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP
5- Cyclic AMP functions as a second messenger
6- Generally, cyclic AMP activates kinases that
phosphorylate proteins which will either increase enzyme synthesis or open ion channels
7- Leads to Increase in cAMP level but is usually short-lived so Phosphodiesterase (PDE) converts cAMP to AMP

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29
Q

steps involving G proteins and calcium ions

A

1- Hormone binds to receptor
2- G Protein activation due to the receptor-hormone interaction
3- Activated G protein activates phospholipase C (PLC)
4- Triggers receptor cascade beginning with production of diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) from phospholipids
5- IP3 diffuses into cytoplasm and triggers release of Ca2+ from intracellular reserves
6- Calcium ion channels open due to activation of protein kinase C (PKC), and Ca2+ enters cell
7- Ca2+ binds to calmodulin, activating enzymes

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30
Q

Function of The hypothalamus

A

1- Regulates functions of the
pituitary gland
2- Synthesizes ADH and OXT
and transports them to
posterior pituitary gland for
release
3- Secretes regulatory
hormones that control
secretory activity of anterior
pituitary gland
4- Contains autonomic centers
that exert direct control over
adrenal medulla

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31
Q

The size of the pituitary gland is about
——- of an inch in diameter and located at
the base of the—— near the
————–. They are connected by
the pituitary stalk, the ——————–.

A

1/3 , brain ,hypothalamus, infundibulum

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32
Q

Hypothalamic control of anterior lobe

A

– Releasing hormones (RH)
Stimulate synthesis and secretion
of one or more hormones at
anterior lobe
– Inhibiting hormones (IH)
Prevent synthesis and secretion of
hormones from anterior lobe

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33
Q

Anterior lobe of pituitary gland
– Also called ——————.

A

adenohypophysis

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34
Q

The Anterior lobe has three regions;

A
  • Pars distalis - secret other pituitary hormones
    – Pars tuberalis
    – Pars intermedia - secret MSH
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35
Q

Hormones of anterior lobe;

A
  • TSH
  • FSH
  • LH
  • GH
  • PLC
  • ACTH
  • Gonadotropins
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36
Q

Production of FSH and LH is stimulated by
————-.

A

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

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37
Q

———– Caused by low production of gonadotropins

A

Hypogonadism

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38
Q

Growth hormone stimulates…..

A

Liver cells to release somatomedins that stimulate
tissue growth

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39
Q

Somatomedins causes….

A
  • Somatomedins cause skeletal muscle fibers and
    other cells to increase uptake of amino acids
  • Stem cells in epithelia and connective tissues to divide
  • Breakdown of triglycerides in adipocytes, which leads to glucose-sparing effect
  • Breakdown of glycogen by liver cells causing
    diabetogenic effect
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40
Q

Posterior lobe of the pituitary gland
* Also called ………..

A

neurohypophysis

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41
Q

………. Contains unmyelinated axons of hypothalamic
neurons

A

Posterior lobe of the pituitary gland

42
Q

……….. synthesis Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH)

A

Supra-optic

43
Q

—————- synthesis Oxytocin (OXT)

A

Paraventricular nuclei

44
Q
  • Stimulates contraction of uterus during labor
  • Promotes ejection of milk after delivery
A

OXT

45
Q

The thyroid gland consists of two lobes connected by ………..

A

narrow isthmus

46
Q

The location of the thyroid gland

A

Lies inferior to thyroid cartilage of larynx

47
Q

…………………, are hollow spheres lined by cuboidal epithelium and surrounded by capillaries

A
  • Thyroid follicles
48
Q

Epithelial cells of the thyroid follicles absorb …… from
blood

A

iodide ions (I–)

49
Q

…………… contains viscous colloid (sticky
secretions)

A

Follicle cavity

50
Q

………………… produce
calcitonin (CT)

A

C (clear) cells, or parafollicular cells

51
Q

The synthesis, storage, and secretion of thyroid hormones;

A

1- Iodide ions are absorbed from the digestive tract and delivered to the thyroid gland by the bloodstream.

2- Endocytosis Iodide ions diffuse to the apical surface of each follicle cellvwhere they are converted into an atom of iodine (I0). Thevtyrosine portion of thyroglobulin bind the iodine atoms.

3- Iodine-containing thyroxine molecules become linked to form thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)

4- Follicle cells remove thyroglobulin from the follicles by endocytosis.

5- Lysosomal enzymes break down the thyroglobulin, and the amino acids and thyroid hormones enter the cytoplasm.

6- The released T3 and T4 diffuse from the follicle cell into the bloodstream.

7- A majority of the T3 and T4 bind to transport proteins.

52
Q

…………., Globular protein synthesized by follicle cells

A

Thyroglobulin
- Secreted into colloid of thyroid follicles
- Contains the amino acid tyrosine;the building block of thyroid hormones

53
Q

……………, Proteins that bind about 75 percent of T4 and 70 percent of T3 entering the bloodstream

A

Thyroid-binding globulins (TBGs)

54
Q

The Function of the Thyroid hormones - T4

A
  • Affect almost every cell in body
  • At the target cell, when binds to cytoplasmic receptors, they are stored and their release is regulated by –ve feedback mechanism
  • When binds to surfaces of mitochondria increase
    ATP production Increased metabolic rate , energy
    consumption and heat generation of cells.
55
Q

…………. Responsible for strong, immediate, and shortlived increase in rate of cellular metabolism

A

Thyroid hormone - T4 tetraiodothyronine

56
Q

…………… In children, essential to normal development of skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems

A

Thyroid hormone - T4 tetraiodothyronine

57
Q

Function of the Thyroid hormones - Calcitonin (CT)

A
  • Helps regulate concentrations of Ca2+ in body fluids - Stimulates Ca2+ excretion by kidneys
  • Prevents Ca2+ absorption by digestive tract
58
Q

Two pairs of ………….
embedded in the posterior surface of
the thyroid gland

A

Parathyroid Glands

59
Q

…………… produce Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) in
response to low concentrations of Ca2+
- Antagonist for calcitonin

A

Parathyroid (chief) cells

60
Q

Physiological function of PTH

A
  • Accelerates mineral turnover and releases
    Ca2+ from bone
  • Reduces rate of calcium deposition in bone
  • it enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ at kidneys,
    reducing urinary losses
  • It stimulates formation and secretion of calcitriol
    by the kidneys
  • Also enhances Ca2+, PO4 absorption by the digestive tract
61
Q

Location of Adrenal Glands

A

Lie along superior border of each kidney

62
Q

…………. Stores lipids, especially cholesterol
and fatty acids

A

Adrenal cortex

63
Q

………. produces steroid hormones
(corticosteroids)

A

Adrenal cortex

64
Q

………….. Secretory activities controlled by
sympathetic division of ANS and produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine

A

Adrenal medulla

65
Q

Adrenal cortex is Subdivided into three regions :

A
  1. Zona glomerulosa
    Produces mineralocorticoids, i.e aldosterone
  2. Zona fasciculate
    Produces glucocorticoids, i.e. cortisol
    (hydrocortisone) with corticosterone
  3. Zona reticularis
    Produces androgens under stimulation by ACTH
66
Q

………….. Stimulates conservation of sodium ions and
elimination of potassium ions

A

Aldosterone

67
Q

…………. Increases sensitivity of salt receptors in taste buds

A

Aldosterone

68
Q

Aldosterone, Secretion responds to:

A

1- Drop in blood Na+, blood volume, or blood
pressure
2- Rise in blood K+ concentration

69
Q

………….. Accelerate glucose synthesis and
glycogen formation

A

Glucocorticoids

70
Q

……………. Show anti-inflammatory effects
and Inhibit activities of white blood cells
and other components of immune system

A

Glucocorticoids

71
Q

Adrenal Medulla
- Contains two types of secretory cells:

A
  • One produces epinephrine (adrenaline), 75% to 80% of medullary secretions
  • The other produces norepinephrine
    (noradrenaline), 20% to 25% of medullary secretions
72
Q

Activation of the adrenal medulla has the following
effects:

A

1- In skeletal muscles, epinephrine and norepinephrine trigger mobilization of glycogen reserves and accelerate the breakdown of glucose to provide ATP
- This combination increases both muscular strength and endurance
2- In adipose tissue, stored fats are broken down into
fatty acids
- Which are released into the bloodstream for other
tissues to use for ATP production
3- In the liver, glycogen molecules are broken down
- The resulting glucose molecules are released into
the bloodstream
- Primarily for use by neural tissue, which cannot
shift to fatty acid metabolism
4- In the heart, the stimulation of beta 1 receptors
triggers an increase in the rate and force of cardiac muscle contraction

73
Q

Location of Pineal Gland

A

Lies in posterior portion of roof of
third ventricle

74
Q

The Pineal Gland contains ……….,
which synthesize hormone ………..

A
  • Pinealocytes
  • melatonin
75
Q

Functions of Melatonin:

A
  • Inhibits reproductive functions
  • Protects against damage by free radicals
  • Influences circadian rhythms
76
Q

Location of Pancreas

A

Lies between inferior border of stomach
and proximal portion of small intestine

77
Q

…………….. Contains exocrine and endocrine cells

A

Pancreas

78
Q

…………… Consists of cells that form clusters known as
pancreatic islets, or islets of Langerhans

A

Endocrine Pancreas

79
Q

pancreatic islets:
1. Alpha cells produce ……
2. Beta cells produce …….
3. Delta cells produce ……
4. F cells secrete……………

A
  1. glucagon
  2. insulin
  3. peptide hormone identical to GH–IH
  4. pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
80
Q

When Blood Glucose Levels rise:

A

Beta cells secrete insulin, stimulating transport of
glucose across plasma membranes

81
Q

When Blood Glucose levels decline:

A

Alpha cells release glucagon, stimulating glucose
release by liver

82
Q

……… Is a peptide hormone released by beta cells

A

Insulin

83
Q

Insulin function

A

1- Accelerates glucose uptake
2- Accelerates glucose utilization and enhances ATP
production
3- Stimulates glycogen formation
4- Stimulates amino acid absorption and protein
synthesis
5- Stimulates triglyceride formation in adipose tissue

84
Q

…………. Released by alpha cells

A

Glucagon

85
Q

Glucagon function

A

1- Mobilizes energy reserves
2- Affects target cells
3- Stimulates breakdown of glycogen in skeletal muscle and liver cells
4- Stimulates breakdown of triglycerides in adipose
tissue
5- Stimulates production of glucose in liver
(gluconeogenesis)

86
Q

Hormones Produced by the Pancreatic Islets

A
  • Glucagon, from Alpha cells
  • Insulin, from Beta cells
  • GH-IH, from Delta cells
  • PP, from F cells
87
Q

…………….. Is characterized by high glucose concentrations high enough to overwhelm the reabsorption capabilities of the kidneys

A

Diabetes Mellitus

88
Q

…………. abnormally high glucose levels
in the blood in general

A

Hyperglycemia

89
Q

…….. appears in the urine, and urine volume
generally becomes excessive (……..)

A

Glucose , (polyuria)

90
Q

…………… Is characterized by inadequate insulin production by the pancreatic beta cells

A

Type 1 (insulin dependent) diabetes

91
Q

………… Is the most common form of diabetes mellitus

A

Type 2 (non-insulin dependent) diabetes

92
Q

……………. Most people with this form of diabetes produce normal amounts of insulin, at least initially, but their tissues do not respond properly, a condition known as …………..

A

Type 2 (non-insulin dependent) diabetes
insulin resistance

93
Q

Type 2 diabetes is associated with …….

A

obesity

94
Q

Complications of untreated, or poorly managed
diabetes mellitus include:

A
  1. Kidney degeneration
  2. Retinal damage
  3. Early heart attacks
  4. Peripheral nerve problems
  5. Peripheral nerve damage
95
Q

Diabetic retinopathy

A

(Diabetes Mellitus) - Retinal Damage.
The proliferation of capillaries and
hemorrhaging at the retina may cause
partial or complete blindness

96
Q

Diabetic nephropathy

A

(Diabetes Mellitus) - Kidney Degeneration.
Degenerative changes in the kidneys, can lead to kidney failure

97
Q

Degenerative blockages in cardiac circulation can lead to ……….

A

early heart attacks

98
Q

Diabetic neuropathy- Peripheral Nerve Problems

A

Abnormal blood flow to neural tissues is probably responsible for a variety of neural problems with peripheral nerves, including abnormal autonomic function

99
Q

Diabetic neuropathy - Peripheral Nerve Damage

A

Blood flow to the distal portions of the limbs is reduced, and peripheral tissues may suffer as a result

100
Q

A reduction in blood flow to the feet can
lead to tissue death, ulceration, infection, and loss of
toes or a major portion of one or both feet
this is an example of ………..

A

Peripheral Nerve Damage

Anatomy and Physiology (4 decks)

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