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Endocrine System Flashcards

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1
Q

The endocrine system influences metabolic activity by means of _________.

A

hormones

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2
Q

Steroidal or amino acid-based molecules released to the blood that act as chemical messengers to regulate specific body functions. Long-distance chemical signals that travel in blood or lymph throughout the body.

A

Hormones

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3
Q
  1. Initiates responses rapidly
  2. Short-duration responses
  3. Acts via action potentials and neurotransmitters
  4. Acts at specific locations determined by axon pathways
  5. Neurotransmitters act over very short distances
A

Nervous System

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4
Q
  1. Initiates responses slowly
  2. Long-duration responses
  3. Acts via hormones released into the blood
  4. Acts at diffuse locations-targets can be anywhere blood reaches
  5. Hormones act over long distances
A

Endocrine System

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5
Q

The scientific study of hormones and the endocrine organs is called

A

Endocrinology

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6
Q

Two kinds of glands are:

A

Endocrine Glands

Exocrine Glands

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7
Q

Produce nonhormonal substances, such as sweat and saliva, and have ducts that carry these substances to a membrane surface.

A

Exocrine glands

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8
Q

Also called ductless glands, produce hormones and lack ducts. They release their hormones into the surrounding tissue fluid, and typically have a rich vascular and lymphatic drainage that receives their hormones.

A

Endocrine glands

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9
Q

Most of the hormone-producing cells in ________ _______ are arranged in cords and branching networks, which maximizes contact between them and the surrounding capillaries.

A

endocrine glands

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10
Q

The hypothalamus, along with its neural functions, also produces and releases hormones, so we consider the hypothalamus a ________ _________

A

neuroendocrine organ

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11
Q

The endocrine glands include:

A
  1. Pituitary
  2. Thyroid
  3. Parathyroid
  4. Adrenal
  5. Pineal Glands
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12
Q

Organs that contain endocrine tissue include:

A
  1. Pancreas
  2. Gonads (ovaries/testes)
  3. Placenta
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13
Q

The major processes that hormones control and integrate include:

A
  1. Reproduction
  2. Growth and development
  3. Maintenance of electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance of the blood
  4. Regulation of cellular metabolism and energy
  5. Mobilization of body defenses
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14
Q

Short-distance chemical signals that exert their effects on the same cells that secrete them. For example, certain prostaglandins released by smooth muscle cells cause those smooth muscle cells to contract.

A

Autocrines

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15
Q

Short-distance chemical signals. They act locally (within the same tissue) but affect cell types other than those releasing the paracrine chemicals. For example, somatostatin released by one population of pancreatic cells inhibits the release of insulin by a different population of pancreatic cells.

A

Paracrines

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16
Q

A hormone’s chemical structure determines one of its critical properties: its ________ in water

A

solubility

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17
Q

A hormones ______ _______ affects how that hormone is transported in the blood, how long it lasts before it is degraded, and what receptors it can act upon.

A

water solubility

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18
Q

Most hormones are based on _____ ______. Molecular size varies widely in this group—from simple amino acid derivatives, to peptides, to proteins. These hormones are usually water soluble and cannot cross the plasma membrane.

A

amino acids

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19
Q

Include biogenetic amines (e.g. epinephrine) and thyroxine.

A

amino acid derivatives

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20
Q

Short chains of amino acids

A

peptides

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21
Q

Long polymers of amino acids

A

proteins

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22
Q

A class of lipids derived from (and including) cholesterol; act as hormones and as constituents of phospholipid bilayer membranes.

A

Steroids

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23
Q

Of the hormones produced by the major endocrine organs, only ______ and __________ hormones are steroids. These hormones are all lipid soluble and can cross the plasma membrane.

A

gonadal; adrenocortical

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24
Q

Signaling chemicals that mediate inflammation and some allergic reactions

A

Leukotrienes

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25
Q

Have multiple targets and effects, ranging from raising blood pressure and increasing the expulsive uterine contractions of birth to enhancing blood clotting, pain, and inflammation.

A

Prostaglandins

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26
Q

Include leukotrienes and prostaglandins. Nearly all cell membranes release these biologically active lipids (made from arachidonic acid).

A

Eicosanoids

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27
Q

Because the effects of eicosanoids are typically highly localized, affecting only nearby cells, they generally act as _______ and ________ and do not fit the definition of true hormones.

A

paracrines; autocrines

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28
Q

Influence distant targets.

A

True hormones

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29
Q

All major hormones circulate to virtually all tissues, but a hormone influences the activity of only those tissue cells that have receptors for it. These cells are its _______ ______.

A

target cells

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30
Q

Hormones bring about their characteristic effects by _______ target cell activity, increasing or decreasing the rates of normal cellular processes.

A

altering

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31
Q

A hormone typically produces one or more of the following changes:

  1. Alters _______ _______ permeability or ________ potential, or both, by opening or closing ion channels
  2. Stimulates synthesis of ______ and other _______ within the cell
  3. Activates or deactivates _______
  4. Induces _______ activity
  5. Stimulates _______
A
  1. Plasma membrane; membrane
  2. enzymes; proteins
  3. enzymes
  4. secretory
  5. mitosis
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32
Q

Hormones act at receptors in one of two ways:

A

Water-soluble hormones and Lipid-soluble hormones

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33
Q

(all amino acid–based hormones except thyroid hormone) act on receptors in the plasma membrane. These receptors are usually coupled via regulatory molecules called G proteins to one or more intracellular second messengers, which mediate the target cell’s response.

A

Water-soluble hormones

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34
Q

(steroid and thyroid hormones) act on receptors inside the cell, which directly activate genes.

A

Lipid-soluble hormones

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35
Q

Receptors for water-soluble hormones must be in the plasma membrane since these hormones ______ diffuse across the plasma membrane

A

cannot

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36
Q

Receptors for lipid-soluble steroid and thyroid hormones are inside the cell because these hormones ____ diffuse across the plasma membrane into the cell.

A

can

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37
Q

Intracellular molecule generated by the binding of a chemical (e.g. hormone or neurotransmitter) to a receptor protein; mediates intracellular responses to the chemical messenger

A

Second messengers

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38
Q

With the exception of thyroid hormone, ______ ____–______ hormones exert their signaling effects through intracellular second messengers generated when a hormone binds to a receptor in the plasma membrane.

A

amino acid-based

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39
Q

Involves the interaction of three plasma membrane components—a hormone receptor, a G protein, and an effector enzyme (adenylate cyclase)—to determine intracellular levels of cyclic AMP.

A

Cyclic AMP Signaling Mechanism

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40
Q

Steps in cycling AMP signaling mechanism:

  1. ________ binds receptors
  2. Receptor activates ____ _______
  3. G protein activates _______ _______
  4. Adenylate cyclase converts ______ to ______ _____
  5. Cyclin AMP activates ______ _______
A
  1. Hormone
  2. G protein
  3. adenylate cyclase
  4. ATP; cyclic AMP
  5. protein kinases
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41
Q

Protein that relays signals between extracellular first messengers (such as hormones or neurotransmitters) and intracellular second messengers (such as cyclic AMP) via an effector enzyme

A

G protein

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42
Q

G protein is “off” when _____ is bound to it, and “on” when _____ is bound to it

A

GDP; GTP

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43
Q

Hormone binding causes the receptor to change ______, allowing it to bind a nearby inactive G protein

A

shape

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44
Q

Enzyme that makes the second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP) from ATP

A

Adenylate cyclase

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45
Q

For as long as activated Gs is bound to it, adenylate cyclase generates the _______ ________ cAMP from ATP.

A

second messenger

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46
Q

Enzyme that phosphorylates a protein (transfers an inorganic phosphate from ATP to the protein), resulting in activation or inactivation of the protein

A

Protein kinases

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47
Q

Add a phosphate group to

A

Phosphorylate

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48
Q

The action of cAMP persists only briefly because the molecule is rapidly degraded by the intracellular enzyme _________

A

phosphodiesterase

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49
Q

In the PIP2-calcium signaling mechanism, intracellular _______ ____ act as a second messenger.

A

calcium ions

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50
Q

The PIP2-calcium signaling mechanism involves a G protein (Gq) and a membrane-bound effector, in this case an enzyme called ________ ___

A

phospholipase C

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51
Q

Phospholipase C splits a plasma membrane phospholipid called PIP2 (phosphatidyl inositol bisphosphate) into two second messengers:

A

diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol trisphosphate (IP3)

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52
Q

Activates a protein kinase enzyme, which triggers responses within the target cell

A

Diacylglycerol (DAG)

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53
Q

Releases Ca2+ from intracellular storage sites.

A

Inositol trisphosphate (IP3)

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54
Q

The liberated Ca2+ also takes on a second-messenger role, either by directly altering the activity of specific enzymes and channels or by binding to the intracellular regulatory protein ________. Once bound, it activates enzymes that amplify the cellular response.

A

calmodulin

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55
Q

Thyroid hormone receptors are always bound to ____ even in the absence of thyroid hormone

A

DNA

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56
Q

When the receptor-hormone complex binds to DNA, it “turns on” a gene; that is, it prompts transcription of DNA to produce a ______

A

mRNA

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57
Q

The synthesis and release of most hormones are regulated by some type of _______ ________ _______

A

negative feedback mechanism

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58
Q

In such a mechanism, some internal or external stimulus triggers hormone secretion. As levels of a hormone rise, it causes target organ effects, which then feed back to inhibit further hormone release.

A

Negative Feedback Mechanism

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59
Q

Three types of stimuli trigger endocrine glands to manufacture and release their hormones:

A

humoral, neural, and hormonal stimuli

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60
Q

Secrete their hormones in direct response to changing blood levels of certain critical ions and nutrients. The simplest endocrine controls

A

Humoral Stimuli

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61
Q

Refers to moisture or bodily fluids

A

Humor

62
Q

Hormones released in response to humoral stimuli include insulin (released in response to increased _______ _______) and aldosterone (released in response to low ____ or high _____ blood levels).

A

blood glucose; Na+ or K+

63
Q

Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release. A response to stress in which the sympathetic nervous system stimulates the adrenal medulla to release norepinephrine and epinephrine.

A

Neural stimuli

64
Q

Release their hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs. Promote rhythmic hormone release, with hormone blood levels rising and falling in a specific pattern.

A

Hormonal stimuli

65
Q

It is the _______ _______ that makes certain adjustments to maintain homeostasis by overriding normal endocrine controls.

A

nervous system

66
Q

The action of insulin and several other hormones normally keeps blood glucose levels in the range of ___–____ mg/100 ml of blood.

A

90-110mg

67
Q

Hormone release is caused by another hormone

A

Tropic hormone

68
Q

Reinforce sympathetic responses that help us deal with stress

A

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

69
Q

Action potentials require ________ channels, whereas graded potentials require ________ channels.

A

voltage-gated; chemically gated

70
Q

In order for a target cell to respond to a hormone, the cell must have specific _______ proteins on its plasma membrane or in its interior to which that hormone can bind

A

receptor

71
Q

Although binding of a hormone to a receptor is required, the degree of target cell activation depends equally on three other factors:

A
  1. Blood levels of the hormone
  2. Relative numbers of receptors for that hormone on or in target cells
  3. Affinity (strength) of the binding between the hormone and the receptor
72
Q

For a given level of hormone in the blood, having a large number of _____-______ receptors produces a pronounced hormonal effect, and having a smaller number of ____-______ receptors reduces the target cell response or causes outright endocrine dysfunction.

A

high-affinity; low-affinity

73
Q

Persistently low levels of a hormone can cause its target cells to form additional receptors for that hormone.

A

Up-regulation

74
Q

Prolonged exposure to high hormone concentrations can decrease the number of receptors for that hormone. This ______- ______ desensitizes the target cells, so they respond less vigorously to hormonal stimulation, preventing them from overreacting to persistently high hormone levels.

A

Down-regulation

75
Q

Hormones circulate in the blood in two forms—_____, or bound to a _______ carrier

A

free; protein

76
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones (steroids and thyroid hormone) are not ______ _______. As a result, they must travel in blood attached to proteins of the blood plasma (plasma proteins).

A

water soluble

77
Q

The concentration of a circulating hormone in blood at any time reflects (1) its rate of ________ and (2) the speed at which it is _________ and removed from the body.

A

release; inactivated

78
Q

Most hormones are removed from the blood by the _______ or ______, and the body excretes their breakdown products in urine or, to a lesser extent, in feces

A

kidneys; liver

79
Q

The length of time for a hormone’s blood level to decrease by half

A

half-life

80
Q

_________ hormones have the shortest half-lives because they are rapidly removed from the blood by the kidneys.

A

Water-soluble

81
Q

_______ hormones require hours to days before their effects are seen

A

Steroids

82
Q

Many characteristics of a hormone (such as its half-life and the time it takes to have an effect) depend on its solubility in ______ or ______

A

water; lipids

83
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones consist of all _______ hormones and ______ hormones

A

steroid; thyroid

84
Q

Water-soluble hormones consist of all ______ _____-_______ hormones except thyroid hormones

A

amino acid-based

85
Q

Sources of lipid-soluble hormones are:

A
  1. Adrenal cortex
  2. Gonads
  3. Thyroid gland
86
Q

Sources of water-soluble hormones are:

A

All other endocrine glands

87
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones are _____ stored in secretory vesicles

A

not

88
Q

Water-soluble hormones _____ stored in secretory vesicles

A

are

89
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones are bound to ______ _______

A

plasma proteins

90
Q

Water-soluble hormones are usually _______ in plasma

A

free

91
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones have a _____ half-life in blood

A

long

92
Q

Water-soluble hormones have a ______ half-life in blood

A

short

93
Q

Lipid-soluble hormone receptors are usually located _______ the cell

A

inside

94
Q

Water-soluble hormone receptors are located on _______ __________

A

plasma membranes

95
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones activate ______, causing synthesis of new proteins

A

genes

96
Q

Water-soluble hormones usually act through _______-________ systems

A

second-messenger

97
Q

Three types of hormone interaction:

A

permissiveness, synergism, and antagonism.

98
Q

The situation in which one hormone cannot exert its full effects without another hormone being present.

Ex. Thyroid hormone is also necessary for normal timely development of reproductive structures

A

Permissiveness

99
Q

Occurs when more than one hormone produces the same effects at the target cell and their combined effects are amplified.

Ex. Both glucagon and epinephrine cause the liver to release glucose to the blood

A

Synergism

100
Q

Occurs when one hormone opposes the action of another.

Ex. Insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels, is antagonized by glucagon, which raises blood glucose levels.

A

Antagonism

101
Q

Neuroendocrine gland located beneath the brain that serves a variety of functions including regulation of gonads, thyroid, adrenal cortex, lactation, and water balance. Securely seated in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone, it secretes at least eight hormones.

A

Pituitary gland

102
Q

To grow under

A

Hypophysis

103
Q
  1. A stalk of tissue that connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus; 2. The distal end of the uterine (fallopian) tube
A

Infundibulum

104
Q

In humans, the pituitary gland has two major lobes:

A

Posterior pituitary lobe and anterior pituitary lobe

105
Q

Neural part of pituitary gland; part of the neurohypophysis. Composed largely of neural tissue such as pituicytes and nerve fibers. It releases neurohormones (hormones secreted by neurons) received ready-made from the hypothalamus. A hormone-storage area and not a true endocrine gland.

A

Posterior pituitary

106
Q

Posterior pituitary plus plus infundibulum; portion of the pituitary gland derived from the brain.

A

Neurohypophysis

107
Q

The glandular part of the pituitary gland. Also called adenohypophysis. It manufactures and releases a number of hormones.

A

Anterior pituitary

108
Q

__________ branches of the internal carotid arteries deliver arterial blood to the pituitary.

A

Hypophyseal

109
Q

Bundle of axons that runs through the infundibulum and connects the posterior pituitary to the hypothalamus. Arises from neurons in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus.

A

Hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract

110
Q

The _______ _______ _______ originates from epithelial tissue as a superior outpocketing of the oral mucosa

A

glandular anterior lobe

111
Q

There is no direct neural connection between the anterior lobe and hypothalamus, but there is a ________ connection

A

vascular

112
Q

The _______ ______ _______ in the infundibulum communicates inferiorly via the small hypophyseal portal veins with a secondary capillary plexus in the anterior lobe.

A

primary capillary plexus

113
Q

The primary and secondary capillary plexuses and the intervening hypophyseal portal veins make up the ________ _______ _______

A

hypophyseal portal system

114
Q

An unusual arrangement of blood vessels in which a capillary bed feeds into veins, which in turn feed into a second capillary bed.

A

portal system

115
Q

Via the hypophyseal portal system, ________ and ________ hormones secreted by neurons in the ventral hypothalamus circulate to the anterior pituitary, where they regulate secretion of its hormones.

A

releasing; inhibiting hormones

116
Q

The _______ _______ ensures that the minute quantities of hormones released by the hypothalamus arrive rapidly at the anterior pituitary without being diluted by the systemic circulation.

A

portal system

117
Q

All these hypothalamic regulatory hormones are ______ ______ based, but they vary in size from a single amine to peptides to proteins.

A

amino acid

118
Q

The paraventricular neurons primarily make _______

A

oxytocin

119
Q

The supraoptic neurons mainly produce ________ _________

A

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

120
Q

Oxytocin and ADH, each composed of ____ amino acids, are almost identical. They differ in only two amino acids.

A

nine

121
Q

Hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary; stimulates contraction of the uterus during childbirth and the ejection of milk during nursing.

A

Oxytocin

122
Q

Oxytocin acts via the _____−_____ second-messenger system to mobilize Ca2+, allowing stronger contractions.

A

PIP2−Ca2+

123
Q

_________ causes a reflex-initiated release of oxytocin, which targets specialized myoepithelial cells surrounding the milk-producing glands.

A

Suckling

124
Q

Both childbirth and milk ejection result from _______ _______ ________

A

positive feedback mechanism

125
Q

Acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain. Involved in sexual and affectionate behavior (as the “cuddle hormone”), and promotes nurturing, couple bonding, and trust.

A

Oxytocin

126
Q

oxy-

A

rapid

127
Q

-tocia

A

childbirth

128
Q

Urine production

A

Diuresis

129
Q

A substance that inhibits or prevents urine formation

A

Antidiuretic

130
Q

Hormones produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary; stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb more water, reducing urine volume

A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

131
Q

Hypothalamic neurons called _________ continually monitor the solute concentration (and thus the water concentration) of the blood.

A

osmoreceptors

132
Q

ADH targets the ______ tubule cells, which respond by reabsorbing more water from the forming urine and returning it to the bloodstream.

A

kidney

133
Q

Under certain conditions, such as severe blood loss, exceptionally large amounts of ADH are released, causing vasoconstriction and raising blood pressure. This response targets different ADH receptors found on vascular smooth muscle. For this reason, ADH is also called _________.

A

vasopressin

134
Q

Disease characterized by passage of a large quantity of dilute urine plus intense thirst and dehydration caused by inadequate release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Can be caused by a pituitary tumor or by a blow to the head that damages the hypothalamus or the posterior pituitary.

A

Diabetes insipidus

135
Q

___________ of ADH, can occur in children with meningitis, or in adults who have neurosurgery, hypothalamic injury, or cancer (particularly lung cancer) in which cancer cells are additional sources of ADH

A

Hypersecretion

136
Q

Marked by retention of fluid, headache and disorientation due to brain edema, weight gain, and decreased solute concentration in the blood

A

syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH)

137
Q

The _________ is known to control the activity of the anterior pituitary.

A

hypothalamus

138
Q

The anterior pituitary releases ____ hormones, all of them peptides or proteins—growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and prolactin

A

six

139
Q

diabetes =

A

overflow

140
Q

insipidus =

A

tasteless

141
Q

______ of the six anterior pituitary hormones—thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone—are tropic hormones or tropins that regulate the secretory action of other endocrine glands

A

Four

142
Q

A hormone that regulates the secretory action of another endocrine organ

A

Tropic hormones

143
Q

tropi =

A

turn on, change

144
Q

__________ cells of the anterior lobe produce growth hormone

A

Somatotropic

145
Q

Hormone that stimulates growth in general; produced in the anterior pituitary; also called somatotropin

A

Growth Hormone (GH)

146
Q

Acting directly, GH exerts ________ effects

A

metabolic

147
Q

GH mediates most of its growth-enhancing effects indirectly via a family of growth-promoting proteins called ______-______ _______ _______(IGFs)

A

insulin-like growth factors

148
Q

Hypersecretion in children results in ________ because GH targets the still-active epiphyseal (growth) plates.

A

gigantism

149
Q

Literally translated as “enlarged extremities,” this condition is characterized by overgrowth of bones of the hands, feet, and face

A

Acromegaly

150
Q

Anterior pituitary hormone that regulates secretion of thyroid hormones

A

Thyroid Stimulation Hormone (TSH)

151
Q

The hypothalamic peptide _______-______ _______ triggers the release of TSH from thyrotropic cells of the anterior pituitary.

A

thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

152
Q

Anterior pituitary hormone that influences the activity of the adrenal cortex. Secreted by the corticotropic cells. Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroid hormones, most importantly glucocorticoids that help the body resist stressors.

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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