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Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

pituitary gland - discuss its

  • anatomical location
  • anatomical associations
  • surrounding structures
A
  • anatomical location - in sella turcica (depression in the base of the brain)
  • anatoical associations - connected to the hypothalamus with infundibular stalk
  • surrounded by a capsule that is
    • made of dense CT
    • a contuation of the dura mater
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2
Q

where is the sella turica and what does it contain?

A

a depression in the pit of the skull

contains the pituitary gland

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3
Q

what is the infundibular stalk?

A

a short stalk that connects the PITUITARY - specifically, the infundibulum of the neurohypophysis (post. lobe of pituitary) to the HYPOTHALAMUS - specifically to the median eminence

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4
Q

what are the two functional components ofthe pituitary gland?

what “types of tissue” do they each represent and from what tissue are they each derived

A

adenohypophysis (anterior lobe):

  • represents glandular tissue
  • derived from oral ectoderm

neurohyphosis (posterior lobe)

  • represents secretory tissue
  • dervied from the the diencephalon
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5
Q

adenohyphosis. describe its

  • origin
  • general cellular organization
  • general role
  • main components
A

= anterior pituitary

  • develops as “Rathke’s Pouch” - an invagination of the ectoderm of the oral cavity
  • its cells organize into clumps & cords around fenestrated capillaries
  • its cells purpose - all are secretory
  • components: pars distalis, pars intermedia, pars tuberalis
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6
Q

what is the pars distalis?

A

a component of adenohypophysis (forms the bulk of it)

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7
Q

what is the pars intermedia?

describe it

A

a portion of the adenohypophysis (anterior lobe of the pituitary) that is actually thin remnant of Raphke’s pouch & contains Rathke’s cysts, which were contained within Rathke’s pouch

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8
Q

what is the pars tubuleris? describe it

A

a portion of the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) that forms a collar around the infundibular stalk (connects pituitary to hypothalamus)

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9
Q

describe the cellular organization of the adenohypophysis

A

cells comprosing the adenohypophysis are organized into clumps and cords around fenestrated capillaries

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10
Q

what are rathke’s cysts?

describe them.

A

cysts contained within the pars intermedia of the adenohpypophysis

are lined with cuboidal epithelium

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11
Q

list and genearlly categorize the cell types that make up the adenohypophysis

A

adenohypophysis cells are

  • mostly chromophiles (secretory cells), which include
    • acidophiles: somatotropes, lactotropes
    • basophils: corticotropes, gonadotropes, thyrotropes
  • and some chromophobes (stain negative for secretory granules)
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12
Q

somatropes

  • are located where anatomically
  • are what kind cells
  • secrete what hormones? under what regulation?
A
  • in adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)
  • are acidophiles (and thus chromophiles)
  • produce growth homrones (somatotropin)
  • under control of hypothalamus:
      • control: GHRH (growth control releasing hormone)
      • control: somatostatin
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13
Q

lactrotropes

  • are located where anatomically?
  • are what type of cells?
  • produe what hormone? under what regulation?
A
  • in adenohypophysis (ant. pituitary)
  • are acidophiles (and thus chromophiles)
  • produe prolactin under regulation of hypothalamus:
      • control: THR (thryotropin releasing hormone)
      • control: dopamine
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14
Q

how do lactotrophes change throughout pregnancy and how is this clinically significant?

A
  • during pregnancy, lactrophes increase in size and #
  • this is why multiparious women - women who have given birth 2+ times - have larger pituitaries
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15
Q

corticotropes

  • are located where anatomically
  • are what kind of cells
  • produce what hormone under what regulation?
A
  • located in adnenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)
  • are basophiles (and thus chromophiles)
  • produce ACTH (adenocorticotropioc hormone) - which then acts on the adrenal cortex - under hypothalamus control
      • control: CRH (coroticotropin releasing hormone)
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16
Q

gonadotropes

  • are located where anatomically?
  • are what kind of cels?
  • release what hormone? under what control?
A
  • adenohypophysis (ant pituitary)
  • are basophiles (and thus chromophiles)
  • release FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) & LH (leutinizing hormone) under control of hypothalamus
      • control: GnRH (gonaotropin releasing hormone)
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17
Q

thyrotropes

  • located where anatomically
  • what kind of cells
  • produce what hormone? under what regulation?
A
  • adenohypophysis (ant pituitary)
  • are basophiles (and thus chromophiles)
  • produce TSH (thryrotropic hormone) under hypothalamus control
      • control: TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone)
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18
Q

what is TRH? where is it made and what does it stimulate?

A
  • thyrotropin releasing hormone
  • made in hypothalamus
  • triggers release of
    1. prolactin from lactrophes (acidophiles)
    2. TSH from thyrotrophes (basophilds)
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19
Q

summarize the hormones synthesized by the chromophiles in the adenohypophysis.

A

acidophiles

  • somatropes –> GH (somatropin): + GHRH/ - somatostatin
  • lactropes –> prolactin: + TRH / - dopamine

basophils

  • corticotropes –> ACTH: + CRH
  • gonadotropes: –> FSH & LH: + GnRH
  • thyrotropes: –> TSH: + TRH
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20
Q

neurohypophysis

  • anatomic location
  • origin
  • “represents” what tissue
  • components
A
  • constitutes the posterior lobe of the pituitary
  • derived from the downgrowth of the neuroectoderm of the diencephalon
  • constitutes “neural secretory tissue”
  • components:
    1. pars nervosa
    2. infundidubulum
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21
Q

list the cell types (and their general roles) and that make up the neurohypophysis

A
  • two major cell types
    • 1. pituicytes: glial cells
    • 2. hypothalmic neurons: secretory cells that produce oxytocin & ADH
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22
Q

pituicytes

  • are located where anatomically?
  • have what roles/characteristics?
A
  • in the neurohypophysis (post. pituitary)
  • are glial cells - support cells
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23
Q

hypothalamic neurons

  • located where anatomically
  • have what roles/features
A
  • in the neurohypophysis (post. pituitary)
  • are the secretory cells of the neurohypophysis, and produce:
    1. ADH (anti-diuretic hormones)
    2. oxytocin:
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24
Q

hypothalmic neurons in the neurohypophysis produce what hormones? what do these hormones do?

A
  1. ADH (anti-diuretic hormones): acts on
    • ​renal arterioles (vasoconstricts)
    • collecting tubules (water reabsorption)
  2. oxytocin: act on
    • uterine smooth muscle (induces contractions)
    • breast myoepthelial cells (induces milk ejection)
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25
discuss the process by which hypothalmic neurons secrete hormones.
hypothalmic neurons = secretory cells of the neurohypophysis (post. pituitary) * these hypothalmic neurons secrete oxytocin & ADH into **long axons**, _whose terminals_ empty into the **par nervosa** component of the neurohypophysis
26
discuss the components & roles of the **pars nervosa**
pars nervosa = component of the neurohypophysis * contains large, distended **terminals** of _long axons_ that transmit ADH & oxytocin from hypothalmic neurons (also in the neurohyphophysis) * these terminals contain **Herring bodies** (stain pink)
27
herring bodies * anatomical location * stain * significance
* located in **axon terminals** in the **pars distalis** **of the neurohypophysis** * stain PINK - highlight these large, distended nerve terminals, which receive ADH/oxytocin
28
what arteries supply the pituitary gland?
1. superior hypophyseal artery 2. inferior superior hypophyseal artery
29
superior hypophseal artery - supplies blood to _what components_ of the hypothalamus / pituitary gland?
hypothalamus - **median iminence** neurohypophysis - **infundilubum** adenohypophysis - **pars tuberalis & pars distalis**
30
the superior hypophyseal artery forms what capillary plexus? where is this capillary plexus located?
= the **primary capillary plexus,** which if _found in_ & supplies the 1. median eminence (hypothalamus) 2. infundibulum (neurohypophysis)
31
what plexus do the hypophseal portal veins form? where is it located?
* form the **secondary capillary plexus**, which is located in the **pars distalis** (bulk of adenohypophyis)
32
summarize blood supply, capillary formations, and hormone transfer conducted by the superior hypophyseal artery (SHA).
superior hypophyseal artery supplies the median eminence, infundibulum (neurohypophysos), pars tuberalis & pairs distalis (adenohypophysis) the SHA 1. forms the **primary capillary plexus** - most immediately, which * _spans_ and _directly supplies_ the: * **median eminence** (hypothalamus) * picking up _releasing hormones_ & the * **infundibulum (**neurohypophysis) * gives off an extension to the * **pars tuberalis** (adenohypophysis - "collar" around infundibular stalk) * is drained by the **hypophyseal portal veins,** which form the * **secondary capillary plexus** - which _spans_ the & _delivers hypothalmic hormones to_ * **pars distalis** (BULK of adenohypopophyis), stimulating * somatotrophes/lactotrophes/thyrotrophes/gonadotrophes
33
the inferior hypophyseal arteries (IHA) - supply _what components_ of the hypothalamus/pituitary
supply the **pars nervosa** (neurohypophysis)
34
list the components of the hypothalamus & pituitary gland and their corresponding arterial supply.
hypothalamus * median eminence - directly by _primary plexus_ (SHA) adenohypophysis: * pars tuberalis - by ext. of _primary plexus_ (SHA) * pars distalis - directly by _secondary plexus_, from hypophyseal veins draining primary plexus (SHA) neurohypophysis: * infundibulum - directly by _primary plexus_ (SHA) * pars nervosa - by a plexus coming off the _IHA_
35
where is the _pineal gland_ located anatomically?
in the _posterior end_ of the **third ventricle** of the brain
36
what tissue is the pineal gland derived from?
from an outgrowth of **neuroectodermal tissue** of the **d**_iencephalon_**** (like the neurophysis of the pituitary galnd)
37
what is the main role of the pineal gland?
coordinating daily & seasonal light-dark cycles (is photosensitive)
38
discuss the general anatomical structure of the pineal gland
* covered by a **capsule** made of **pia mater** * **​**this capsule gives off inward extensions that create SEPTAE, that * divide up the pineal gland & contain blood vessles
39
the pineal gland is composed primarily of what two entities?
1. coropora arenacea (CaPO4 aggregates) 2. cells * pinealocytes * glial cells
40
summarize the * anatomic location * origin * purpose * structure * microscopic makeup of the pineal gland
* location: _posterior end_ of **3rd brain ventricle** * origin: outgrowth of **diencephalon** * purpose: regulates night-day cycles * structure: surrounded by **pia mater capsule** * microscopic makeup: **corpora arenacea + cells** (glial & pinealocytes)
41
corpora arenacea * what are they? * are located where anatomically? * have what clinical significance?
* CaPO4 aggregates * location: pineal gland * clinical: increase in _size/#_ throughout age
42
pinealocytes * anatomical location * characteristics * role
* location: pineal gland * characteristics * are poorly-defined clumps/cluters * have **LARGE, EUCHROMATIC** **nuclei** **​**w/ a **prominent nucleuolis** * give off _micro-tubule_ containing processes * role: **secretes melatonin**
43
pinealocytes * anatomical location * characteristics * role
* location: pituitary gland * characteristics * are poorly-defined clumps/cluters * have **LARGE, EUCHROMATIC** **nuclei** **​**w/ a **prominent nucleuolis** * give off _micro-tubule_ containing processes * role: **secretes melatonin**
44
melatonin secretion * is done by what cells? * is regulated how? * has what effects?
* secreted by: pineaolcytes (in pineal gland) * regulated by: **norepinephrine** * **​**light/dark info is perceived by suprachiasmatic nucleus --\> travels through retinothalamic tract --\> sympathetic tracts * daytime: light impulses = high NE --\> low melatonin secretion * nighttime: no light impulses = low NE --\> high melatonin secretion * peaks in middle of night * effects: inhibits stereogenic activity of gonads
45
glial cells are * located where anatomically? * have what role? * have what characteristics?
glial cells are located in the * neurohypophysis (post pituitary) - as **pituicytes** * pineal gland - as **interstitial cells** in both locations, serve as * support cells in the pineal gland: have small, heterochromatic nuclei distinguishing them from pinealocytes
46
contrast the nuclei of the two cells found in the pineal gland.
1. pinealocytes: LARGE, EUCHROMATIC w/ p_rominent nucleolis_ 2. glial (interstitial cells): SMALL, HTEROCHROMATIC nucleis
47
what do the neurohypophysis and the pineal gland have in common?
* both are 1. **derived** from the **diencephalon** 2. **encapsuled** made of a meningeal layer * neuropophysis (and all of pituitary) - capsule is ext of _dura mater_ * pineal gland - capsule from _pia mater_ 3. **composed** of **glial cells + secretory cells** * glial cells (pituicytes / interstial cells) * secretory cells (hypothalmic neurons that made ADH & oxytocin / pinealocytes that make melatonin)
48
the secondary capillary plexus * is formed by what vasculature? * is made of what "type" of capillaries? * supplies...?
* formed by hypophyseal portal veins * made of **fenestrated, sinosoidal capillaries** * supplies pars distalis (adenohypophysis)
49
where are the adrenal glands located anatomically?
superior poles of the kidneys
50
discuss the general stucture (surrounding structures / components) of the adrenal glands
adrenal glands are * embedded in aidpose tissue (perirenal fat) * surrounded by a CT capsule that extends internally to form _trabeculae_ * divided into two omponents: 1. **cortex** - the OUTER parenchyma, yellow color 2. **medulla** - the INNER parynchyma, red-brownish color
51
the adrenal medulla parenchyma is _derived_ from what tissue?
* cortical cells - from mesenchyme (mesodermal in origin) * medullary cells - from neural crest cells (ectodermal in origin)
52
_cortical cells_ of adrenal gland * are located? * have what features/characteristics? * have what primary role?
* location: periphery of gland * cells have abundant: * **lipid droplets** * **SER** * **mitochondria w/ tubular cristae** * role: STEROID PRODUCTION - mineralcorticoids / glucocorticoids / androgens
53
the cortex of the adrenal gland consists of what major components?
* cortex is divided into 3 zones: * zona glomerulosa * zona fasciulata * zona reticularis
54
what type of capillaries are found in all zones of the adrenal cortex?
fenestrated, sinosoidal capillaries
55
the zona glomurulosa * has what cellular organization/makeup? * produces what steroids? that have what roles? under what regulation?
* cell organization: **arched cords/curved columns** _surrounded by_ fenestrated sinusoidal capillaries * produce **mineralcoritcoids,** which regulate Na/K/water balance * primarily **aldosterone** under regulation of Ang II
56
what is the primary steroid produced by the zona glomerulosa ? & what processes regulate its release? what does it do?
= adosterone (a mineralcorticoid) * **regulated by RAAS system** 1. low BP triggers juxtaglomular apparatus (_kidney_) to producec renin 2. renin converts circulating Angiotensin**_ogen_** --\> Angiotensin I 3. ACE converts Angiotensin I --\> Antiogentin II 4. _Angiotensin I_I stimulates zona glomeruas --\> aldosterone * **promotes:** * reabsorption of Na+ at various sites * secretion of K+
57
zona fasciulata * has what cellular organization/makeup? * produces what steroids? which have what hormones? under what regulation?
* cell arrangment: **one/two cell-thick straight cords** that run at a RIGHT ANGLE to capsule and have fenestrated sinusoidal capillaries _in between them_ * cell composition: **spongiocytes** (mostly) * produce: **glucocoritcoids** under control of ACTH
58
the zona fasculata produces primarily what steroids? what have which effects? under what control?
**glucorticoids** * **regulated by ACTH** * hypothalamus produces CRH * CRH acts on corticotrophes (_basophils_) in the _adenohypophysos_ to induce production of ACTH * **​**ACTH stimulates zona fasculata --\> glucocorticoids * roles are to: 1. _increase gluconeogenesis/lipolysis_ 2. _depress immune response_ by inhibiting 1. production of **IL-1/IL-2** & 2. **lymphoblast mitosis**
59
spongiocytes * are found where? * have what characteristics? * have what role?
* in the zona fasculata * have _esp high #s of lipid droplets_ * produce glucocorticoids
60
zona reticularis * has what cellular organization/composition? * produces what steroids? under what regulation?
* cell organization: small cells in **irregular cords** that **anatamose into a reticulum** * cell composition: have **many lipofuscin granules** (& FEW lipid droplets) * produce: **glucocorticoids + androgens** under regulation of ACTH
61
discuss the cellular organization of * zona glomerulosa * zona fasiculata * zona reticularis
glomerulosa: **arched/curved columns** _surrounded by_ fenestrated sinusoidal capillaries fasciculata: **1-2 cell thick straight cords** running @ right angle to capsulse, _separated by_ fenestrated sinusoidal capillaries reticularis: **irregular cords** that anastmose into _reticulum_
62
discuss the special cell types seen in the * zona glomulosa * zona fasiculata * zona reticularis
* zona glomerulosa - n/a * zona fasiculata - **spongiocytes** (have many lipid droplets) * zona reticularis - cells with **many lipofuscin granules** (& few lipid droplets)
63
what are the the hormones/steroid cascades that induce steroid secretion from the zona glomerulosa, zona fasculata, zona reticularis?
zona glomerulosa: Ang II induces release of aldsterone zona fasculata/reticulosa: CRH --\> ACTH (from adenohypophysis) --\> induces glucorticoid + androgen release
64
what cell types comprise the adenal medulla?
1. chromaffin cells 2. ganglion cells
65
discuss the cellular organization of the adrenal medulla
polyhedral cells organized into clumps or cords
66
what is the primary cell of the adrenal medulla? * from what are they derived? * what are their characteristics/components? * what purpose do they serve?
= chromaffin cells * derived from neural crest cells (ectodermal) * are in fact **modified post-synaptic neurons** that secrete SNS NTs * contains secretory granules **made of** **catecholamines (NE/E)**
67
contrast the cortex / medulla in terms of steroid storage
cortical secretory cells do NOT store steroids - immediately secrete them medullary secretory cells DO store & accumulate steroids before secreting them
68
why do chromaffin cells have secretory granules of varying sizes?
* chromaffin cells that secrete NE = have larger secretory granules * chromaffin cells tat secrete E = have smaller secretory granules
69
chromaffin * secrete what hormones? that have what effect? * under what reguation?
* secrete NE (large granules) and E (small granules) * which leads to --\> SNS effects: vasoconstrction / HTN / increased HR / inc blood glucose * in response to **ACh** **pre-synaptic pre-ganglionic sympathetics**
70
what is the role of ganglion cells in the adrenal medulla?
1. modulate chromaffin cels 2. innervate medullary blood cells
71
outline the blood supply to the adrenal gland
* adrenal gland blood supply comes from **suprarenal arteries,** which give off 1. **_​_capsular arteries** that 1. supply capsule, and 2. give off **cortical arteries** that form a _dense fenestrated capillary bed_ that 1. supply cortex 2. drains into **adrenomedullary collecting veins** that 1. supply medulla 2. drain into the **central adrenomedullary vein** 2. **medullary arteries** that form a _dense fenestrated capillary bed_ that 1. supplies the medulla 2. drains into **andrenomedullary collecting vei**ns that drain into **central aderenomedullary veins**
72
what are the blood supplies to the adenal medulla? describe them.
blood from 1. medullary artery - directly off capsular artery * oxygen rich ​_​_ 2. adrenomedullary collecting vein - from cortical capillary beds * oxygen poor * glucocorticoid rich
73
what is the anatomical location and gross structure of the of the thyroid gland?
* is a bilobed structure surrounded by a capsule * anterior to/wraps around the trachea + larynx
74
what is the main structural unit of the thyroid gland? describe it.
= thyroid follicle. * consist of: * **simple cuboidal follicular epithelioum** surrounding a **colloid:** **a gel filled cyst** * **​**follicular epithelium = follicular cells + parafollicular cells * follicular cells * **​**apical side = _face the lumen (colloid)_ * basal side = attached to a basal lamina * parafollicular cells * dont contact the lumen * surrounded by: dense capillary network
75
what cell types comprise follicular epithelial and what are their _general_ functions?
1. follicular cells - produce T3 & T4 (principle endocrine cells) 2. parafollicular cells - produce calcitonin
76
outline the steps by which follicular cells synthesize T4 and T3. _where specifically_ does each step occur?
T3 = triodothyronine, T4 = thyroxine steps: * within the epitheial cells themself, two things happen: 1. thyroglobulin is synthsized in the RER/Golgi 2. Iod**_ide_** is oxygenated to iod**_ine_** right near the apical membrane * next, thyroglobulin and iodine are released into follicular lunen (colloid) * here, thyroglobulin **undergoes iodination** to produce --\> T3 & T4 * T3 & T4 remain stored in the follicle lumen
77
what triggers the release of T3 and T4 from follicular cells?
* _trigger:_ stimulation of follicular cells by **TSH** (thyrotropic hormone) which is released from **_thyrotrophes_** (_basophils_ in _adenohypophysis_) in response to TRH (thryotorpic hormone) from the hypothalamus * _process:_ 1. _​_the follicular cells **reabsorb colloid** from the lumen in order to take up T3 & T4. 2. in the cytopplasm, T3 & T4 are broken down by lyosomes 3. **T3:T4** release at **1:20 ratio** cross the basal membrane --\> basal lamina --\> diffuse into capillaries surrounding the follicle
78
what cells produce calcintonin & in response to what stimuli? what does calcitonin do?
* parafollicular cells (comprise follicular epithelium lining thyroid follicles) * calcitonin **lower blood calcium levels** by 1. supressing bone reaborption by osteoclasts 2. promoting Ca++ deposition by osteoblasts * calcitonin secretion is stimulated by high blood Ca++ and supressed by low blood Ca++
79
how do follicular epithelial cells ineteract with the follicular lumen?
* follicular cells: apical side adjacant to the lumen * parafollicular cells: do not contact the lumen
80
follicular cells are derived from..?
endodermal tissue
81
what is the anatomical location / gross structure of the parathyroid glands?
* they are two pairs of small ovoid structures & are imbedded in the thyroid glands * one pair = on superior thyroid * another pair = on inferior thyroid
82
what is the cellular organization of the parathyroid gland?
cells are **arranged in cords** that follow fenestrated capillaries
83
what cell types comprise the parathyroid gland and what are their _general_ purposes?
1. parathyroid chief cells - synthesize parathormone (PTH) 2. oxphill cells - unkown
84
parathyroid cells are derived from..?
endodermal tissue
85
parathormone (PTH) is * secreted by what cells? * in response to what stimulation? * has what effects?
* **parathyroid cells** of the parathyroid * PTH increases **blood calcium levels** by * simulating reabsorbtive activity by osteoclasts (+ break bone down) * supressing Ca++ deposition by osteoblasts ( - build bone up) * PTH secretion is stimulated by low blood Ca++ and inhibite by high blood Ca++
86
oxyphyil cells * where are they found? * what is their role? * what are their characteristics?
* in **parathyroid gland** * role - unkwon * distinguishing characterisic: **large # of mitochondria**, cytoplasm stains with acid
87
what are the following cells derived from? * pituitary gland cells * pineal gland cells * adrenal gland cells * thyroid gland cells * parathyroid gland cells
* adenohypophysis cells - _oral cavity_ **_ecto_**derm (Rathke-s pouch) * neurohypophysis cells & pineal gland cells - _diencephalon_ **_ecto_**derm * cortical cells - mesenchyme (**_meso_**derm) * medullary cells (chromaffin cells) - _neural cest cells_ * thyroid cells (follicular cells) & parathyroid cells - **_endo_**derm

Histology II (2 decks)

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