Endocrine

Question 1

What is the Chemical (or Molecular) Level?

Answer 1

It consists of atoms and molecules that form the foundation of all matter.

Question 2

What are atoms?

Answer 2

The smallest stable chemical units that form the foundation of all matter.

Example: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen atoms.

Question 3

What are molecules?

Answer 3

Groups of atoms bonded together, working in coordination to form compounds.

Example: Water (H2O), glucose (C6H12O6), DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

Question 4

What is the Cellular Level?

Answer 4

It includes cells and organelles, which are the basic structural and functional units of life.

Question 5

What are cells?

Answer 5

The basic structural and functional units of life, composed of atoms, molecules, and organelles.

Example: Eukaryotic cells (human cells, plant cells) vs. prokaryotic cells (bacteria).

Question 6

What are organelles?

Answer 6

Specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions.

Example: Nucleus (houses DNA), mitochondria (energy production), ribosomes (protein synthesis).

Question 7

What is the Tissue Level?

Answer 7

A group of similar cells working together to perform a specific function.

Question 8

What is an example of epithelial tissue?

Answer 8

Skin cells forming a protective layer.

Question 9

What is an example of muscle tissue?

Answer 9

Cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle cells contract to generate movement.

Question 10

What is an example of nervous tissue?

Answer 10

Neurons that transmit electrical signals.

Question 11

What is the Organ Level?

Answer 11

A group of different tissues working together to perform specific functions.

Question 12

What is an example of an organ?

Answer 12

Heart: Composed of muscle, connective, and nervous tissues, functions to pump blood.

Example: Lungs: Comprised of epithelial, connective, and muscle tissues to facilitate breathing.

Question 13

What is the Organism Level?

Answer 13

An individual living entity made up of multiple organ systems working in coordination.

Question 14

What are examples of organisms?

Answer 14

Humans, animals, and plants.

Question 15

What is homeostasis?

Answer 15

The process of maintaining a stable internal environment in the body despite external changes.

Example: Temperature regulation, fluid balance, pH balance.

Question 16

What is intrinsic regulation?

Answer 16

Automatic response within a cell, tissue, or organ to environmental changes.

Example: Blood flow to tissues increases during exercise.

Question 17

What is extrinsic regulation?

Answer 17

Controlled by external systems like the nervous and endocrine systems.

Example: Nervous system triggering a fight-or-flight response.

Question 18

What are the components of a homeostatic mechanism?

Answer 18

1. Receptor: Detects the change. 2. Control Center: Processes the information and sends instructions. 3. Effector: Carries out the instructions to restore balance.

Question 19

What is negative feedback?

Answer 19

Works to counteract a change, restoring the system to normal.

Example: Temperature regulation—body shivers when cold to generate heat, sweats when hot to cool down.

Question 20

What is positive feedback?

Answer 20

Amplifies the change, often leading to a specific outcome.

Example: Childbirth—contractions increase until the baby is delivered.

Question 21

What is the function of the endocrine system?

Answer 21

Regulates long-term processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction through hormone secretion.

Question 22

What are endocrine glands?

Answer 22

Glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Example: Pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal glands.

Question 23

What are exocrine glands?

Answer 23

Glands that have ducts and release substances onto epithelial surfaces.

Example: Sweat glands, salivary glands.

Question 24

What is the difference between the nervous and endocrine systems?

Answer 24

Nervous System: Fast, short-lived, specific effects. Endocrine System: Slower, longer-lasting, widespread effects.

Question 25

What is the hypothalamus?

Answer 25

The master control center that regulates the endocrine system and coordinates the autonomic nervous system.

Question 26

What is the pituitary gland?

Answer 26

Often called the 'master gland,' it releases hormones that regulate other endocrine organs. ## Footnote Example: Anterior lobe secretes growth hormone (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

Question 27

What does the thyroid gland produce?

Answer 27

Produces T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) that regulate metabolism.

Question 28

What is the role of parathyroid glands?

Answer 28

Produce parathyroid hormone (PTH) which increases blood calcium levels.

Question 29

What regulates thyroid function?

Answer 29

A negative feedback mechanism regulates thyroid hormone levels.

Question 30

What is hypothyroidism?

Answer 30

A condition characterized by low thyroid hormone levels, leading to symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, and cold intolerance.

Question 31

What is hyperthyroidism?

Answer 31

An overproduction of thyroid hormones, leading to symptoms like weight loss, increased heart rate, and nervousness.

Question 32

What is the adrenal gland?

Answer 32

Situated above the kidneys, it has two distinct parts: adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.

Question 33

What does the adrenal cortex produce?

Answer 33

Produces 24+ corticosteroids that affect metabolism by altering gene transcription in target cells.

Question 34

What is aldosterone?

Answer 34

A mineralocorticoid that controls water and electrolyte balance. ## Footnote Example: Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption in kidneys, promoting water retention and increasing blood pressure.

Question 35

What are glucocorticoids?

Answer 35

Hormones like cortisol that regulate metabolism. ## Footnote Example: Cortisol helps the body respond to stress by increasing glucose availability for energy.

Question 36

What are gonadocorticoids?

Answer 36

Hormones that aid in the onset of puberty and secondary sexual characteristics.

Question 37

What is the primary hormone released by the adrenal cortex in response to ACTH?

Answer 37

Cortisol ## Footnote Cortisol helps the body respond to stress by increasing glucose availability for energy.

Question 38

What hormones are produced in the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex?

Answer 38

Androgens (e.g., testosterone) ## Footnote Androgens produced here play a role in libido and the development of muscle mass.

Question 39

What are the primary hormones produced by the adrenal medulla?

Answer 39

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).

Question 40

What is the primary function of epinephrine and norepinephrine?

Answer 40

Part of the 'fight or flight' response.

Question 41

What effect does epinephrine have on skeletal muscles?

Answer 41

Mobilizes glycogen reserves, increasing ATP for quick energy.

Question 42

What is the function of melatonin?

Answer 42

Regulates circadian rhythms (sleep-wake cycle) and acts as an antioxidant. ## Footnote Melatonin levels rise at night, inducing sleepiness.

Question 43

What are the main hormones produced by the pancreas?

Answer 43

Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide.

Question 44

What is the function of insulin?

Answer 44

Reduces blood glucose by promoting glucose uptake by cells and converting it to glycogen. ## Footnote Insulin reduces blood glucose and promotes tissue storage of glucose as glycogen.

Question 45

What is the function of glucagon?

Answer 45

Stimulates liver glycogen breakdown and increases blood glucose levels. ## Footnote Glucagon helps raise blood glucose by releasing glucose from liver storage.

Question 46

What is the role of enteroendocrine cells in the gastrointestinal tract?

Answer 46

Secrete hormones that coordinate digestive processes.

Question 47

What are the endocrine functions of the kidneys?

Answer 47

Produce calcitriol, erythropoietin, and renin.

Question 48

What is the function of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)?

Answer 48

Lowers blood pressure by reducing sodium and water retention by kidneys.

Question 49

What is the function of thymosin?

Answer 49

Promotes T lymphocyte development and maturation.

Question 50

What is the primary hormone produced by the testes?

Answer 50

Testosterone.

Question 51

What are the functions of estrogens?

Answer 51

Regulate menstrual cycles and female secondary sex characteristics.

Question 52

What is the function of leptin?

Answer 52

Regulates appetite by signaling fullness.

Question 53

What are amino acid derivatives in hormones?

Answer 53

Hormones derived from amino acids, such as epinephrine and melatonin.

Question 54

What are peptide hormones?

Answer 54

Hormones made of short chains of amino acids, like insulin.

Question 55

What are steroid hormones?

Answer 55

Lipid-based hormones derived from cholesterol, such as testosterone and cortisol.

Question 56

What is the mechanism of action for peptide and catecholamine hormones?

Answer 56

Bind to cell membrane receptors and activate second messenger systems.

Question 57

What happens to hormone production with aging?

Answer 57

Hormone production often declines with age.

Question 58

What is hyperglycemia?

Answer 58

A condition characterized by elevated blood glucose levels.

Question 59

What is diabetes mellitus?

Answer 59

A metabolic disorder marked by chronic high blood sugar levels.