emotions

Question 1

what is emotional eating

Answer 1

Emotional eating (DEBQ)
▫ Associated primarily with negative emotions (comfort
eating)
 Mood enhancing properties of food (CHO/fatty foods)
▫ Escape (from self-awareness) Theory
 Attempt to escape/shift attention from source of anxiety that
causes negative self-awareness (Heatherton & Baumeister,
1991). E.g., Binge eaters
▫ Five-way model of the links between emotions and eating
(Macht, 2008)

Question 2

The 5 way model

Answer 2

• Integrative and comprehensive model that takes into
  account both individual characteristics and emotion
  features
• 5 ways in which emotions impact on eating behaviour
  (Macht, 2008).

1. Effect on food choice
2. Suppression of food intake
3. Undermine cognitive control
4. Eating can be a mechanism for regulating emotions
5. Emotion-congruent modulation

Question 3

stress and eating

Answer 3

• Conflicting results – “The stress eating paradox”- depending on the individual and context stress can cause an increase in eating and a decrease in eating

▫ Inconsistent definitions of stress
▫ Difficult to measure
▫ Physical versus emotional stress
▫ Stress intensity
▫ Confounding mechanisms

▫ General effect versus individual difference models
 Greeno & Wing (1994)

Question 4

general effect vs individual difference models

Answer 4

Greeno and wing 1994-
The general effects model and individual differences model offer two frameworks for understanding how stress influences eating behavior. Both models highlight different aspects of the stress-eating relationship, focusing on whether stress affects eating behavior uniformly across people or varies based on personal characteristics.

1. General Effects Model
   Definition: The general effects model assumes that stress has a uniform impact on eating behavior, influencing everyone in a similar way. It focuses on the idea that stress universally triggers changes in eating patterns (e.g., overeating or undereating), regardless of individual traits or tendencies.

Key Features:

Stress is seen as a primary driver of eating behavior.
Eating responses (e.g., increased intake of palatable foods) are expected to follow the same pattern across most individuals.
This model aligns with the idea that stress activates physiological responses (e.g., cortisol release) that influence appetite and food preferences.
Examples:

Acute stress (e.g., an exam) may lead to appetite suppression for most individuals due to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
Chronic stress may generally promote overeating as cortisol levels remain elevated, stimulating hunger and cravings for high-calorie foods.
Limitations:

Fails to account for variability in stress responses (e.g., some overeat, while others undereat).
Overlooks the role of psychological, behavioral, and biological differences between individuals.

2. Individual Differences Model
   Definition: This model emphasizes that stress affects eating behavior differently depending on individual traits and predispositions. It argues that personality, eating habits, emotional regulation skills, and other factors shape how people respond to stress in terms of their eating behavior.

Key Features:

Stress interacts with individual traits such as:
Restrained eating: People who consciously restrict their food intake (e.g., dieters) may lose control and overeat under stress.
Emotional eating: People who eat in response to emotions may turn to food as a coping mechanism when stressed.
Stress sensitivity: Some individuals are more biologically or psychologically reactive to stress, which influences their eating behavior.
Recognizes variability in eating responses, such as:
Stress-induced overeating: Eating more under stress, often involving comfort foods.
Stress-induced undereating: Reduced food intake due to appetite suppression.
Examples:

A chronic dieter may binge on high-calorie snacks during stress because their self-control resources are depleted (restrained eater response).
An emotional eater may use food to manage feelings of anxiety or sadness caused by stress.
Someone who is highly stress-resistant may not experience significant changes in eating behavior at all.
Strengths:

Provides a nuanced understanding of stress-eating relationships.
Explains why interventions to manage stress-related eating must be tailored to the individual

In reality, both models are valid and complementary:

The general effects model applies to broad trends (e.g., the physiological effects of acute or chronic stress on appetite).
The individual differences model explains variability within those trends, highlighting how personal characteristics modify stress-eating responses.
Practical Implications
For the General Effects Model: Public health strategies might focus on reducing stress overall to curb its general impact on eating behavior.
For the Individual Differences Model: Tailored interventions could address specific vulnerabilities (e.g., teaching emotional eaters alternative coping strategies or helping restrained eaters build healthier dietary patterns)

Question 5

gender differences

Answer 5

Males
▫ meal-type food preferences under stress

• Females
  ▫ high fat, highly palatable snack foods
  ▫ Feel more guilty after consuming comfort foods
  ▫ Suggested more susceptible to stress induced eating
  (Wansink, Cheney & Chan, 2003).

Greeno 1994- restrained eating predicts vunerability to overeating to stress amongst women

Inconsistent findings
* Barrington, Beresford, McGregor & White (2014)
▫ Gender did not mediate the relationship between
perceived stress and dietary choices.
* Wardle et al., (2000)
▫ High workload periods associated with higher
energy and fat intake across males & females
▫ Restraint predicted tendency towards overeating in
response to stress (restraint is higher in females so restraint is the confounding factor)

Question 6

gender differences 2

Answer 6

Stone and Brownell 1994-

Males had a slight tendency to eat less than to eat more across all levels of stress, except at the highest level, where eating less occurred much more frequently. In females, the tendency to eat less as opposed to eating more emerged at middle levels of stress; at the highest level of stress, females were more than three times more likely to eat less than to eat more. Individual subjects were highly consistent over levels of stress in the direction of eating; 82% of the subjects were consistent in eating more or less over the majority of their stressful periods. These results show a clear effect of stress on eating, with eating less being the predominant response.

Question 7

macht 2008

Answer 7

1. Effect on Food Choice (Emotion-Congruent Modulation of Food Choice)
   Definition: Emotions influence the type of food people choose to eat, leading to preferences that align with their emotional state.
   Explanation:
   Negative emotions often drive cravings for high-calorie comfort foods (e.g., sweets, fatty foods).
   Positive emotions may lead to healthier food choices or indulgent celebratory eating.
   Example:
   Someone might crave chocolate when feeling sad or opt for a fresh salad when feeling happy and motivated.
   Why This Matters: Emotional states bias food preferences, often leading to less healthy choices under stress or sadness.
2. Suppression of Food Intake
   Definition: Emotions, particularly intense negative emotions, can suppress appetite and reduce food consumption.
   Explanation:
   Acute stress activates the sympathetic nervous system (“fight or flight”), which suppresses hunger signals temporarily.
   Similarly, emotions like anxiety, grief, or anger may make eating unappealing.
   Example:
   Feeling too anxious or upset to eat after a heated argument or during a high-stakes exam.
   Why This Matters: Emotional suppression of food intake highlights the variability in how people respond to emotions, with some experiencing undereating rather than overeating.
3. Undermine Cognitive Control
   Definition: Emotions can impair cognitive control over eating, particularly in individuals who rely on self-regulation (e.g., restrained eaters or dieters).
   Explanation:
   Stress or emotional distress depletes cognitive resources, reducing the ability to maintain dietary restraint.
   This often leads to overeating or impulsive eating of foods that would normally be avoided.
   Example:
   A dieter succumbing to binge eating after a stressful day at work because their cognitive resources are depleted.
   Why This Matters: This mechanism explains why emotional distress can lead to loss of control over eating behaviors.
4. Eating Can Be a Mechanism for Regulating Emotions
   Definition: Eating is used as a tool to cope with or regulate emotions, particularly negative emotions.
   Explanation:
   Food, especially palatable foods, can temporarily improve mood by activating the brain’s reward system and reducing stress or sadness.
   This is a central feature of emotional eating and why it’s often associated with comfort foods.
   Example:
   Eating ice cream or chocolate to feel better after a bad day or a breakup.
   Why This Matters: This mechanism underscores the emotional motivations behind overeating and the use of food as a coping strategy.
5. Emotion-Congruent Modulation
   Definition: Emotional states influence eating behaviors in ways that align with the emotion itself.
   Explanation:
   Positive emotions may increase eating in social settings (celebratory eating) or decrease it due to contentment.
   Negative emotions can either increase or decrease eating, depending on the individual’s tendencies (e.g., stress-eating vs. stress-induced undereating).
   Example:
   Feeling elated during a party might lead to overeating festive treats, while sadness might either suppress or enhance eating, depending on the person