ELSS part two (amazon and tundra) Flashcards
1
Q
what are the stores in the amazon water cycle?
A
Atmosphere
Vegetation
Groundwater
2
Q
how is the atmosphere a store in the amazon water cycle?
A
High temperature eans large amounts of moisture stored in the atmosphere
High absolute humidity
3
Q
How is vegetation a store in the amazon water cycle?
A
Trees absorb and store water which they release through transpiration
4
Q
How is groundwater a store in the amazon water cycle?
A
High rainfall means large store of water in soil or aquifers
5
Q
what are the flows in the amazon water cycle?
A
Evaporation
Precipitation
Runoff
6
Q
how is evaporation a flow in the amazon water cycle?
A
High rates due to high temp,high rain and dense vegetation.
Most evaporation is from intercepted moisture
Most transpiration is lost from soil
7
Q
how much of incoming rain is returned to atmosphere through evapotranspiration
A
50%
8
Q
how is most transpiration lost?
A
through the soil
9
Q
how much of the carbon in ground biomass found in the Amazon?
A
40-50%
14-40kg of carbon per km2
10
Q
how much carbon is in the soil in amazon?
A
average 90-200 tonnes/hectare
11
Q
why is photosynthesis high in the amazon?
A
due to high humidity and all year growth
12
Q
what is net primary productivity in the amazon?
A
2,500g/m2/year
HIGH
13
Q
what is the biomass in the amazon?
A
400-700 tonnes/hectare
HIGH
14
Q
how much carbon to rainforest trees have above ground?
A
180 tonnes/hectare
15
Q
how much carbon do rainforest trees have below ground?
A
40 tonnes/hectare
16
Q
how much carbon does the rainforest absorb?
A
2.4 billion tonnes a year
17
Q
why do rainforests have poor nutrient levels?
A
due to trees needing the nutrients for all year growth
18
Q
what are key characteristics of carbon cycle in the amazon?
A
- rapid caron exchange between atmosphere, biosphere and soil
- Rapid and high levels of carbon fixing through photosynthesis
- Warm,humid conditions mean decomposition is rapid and quick release of CO2
- Rapid exchange is what enable the nutrient-poor soil to support a diverse biome with high biomass
19
Q
how much water is lost by interception in the rainforest?
A
66%
20
Q
what is the climate in a tropical rainforest?
A
High humidity
2000mm of rain annually with no dry season
High temperature - 26-28C
21
Q
how do rainforests create rain?
A
The biotic pump
22
Q
how does the biotic pump work?
A
Water vapour rises through transpiration
Air pressure drops and allows more water vapour to rise (due to condensation)
Due to the low pressure (from air rising), moist air moves inward to the area of low pressure
23
Q
what are the two pumps in the amazon rainforest carbon cycle?
A
Physical pump
Biological pump
24
Q
how does the physical pump work in the amazon rainforest carbon cycle?
A
Mixing of surface and deep water in oceans
CO2 enters the sea by diffusion from the atmosphere
Surface current transport water ad dissolved CO2 to poles.
Here it cools and becomes dense and sinks (downwelling)
Eventually deep currents transport carbon to areas of upwelling
25
how does the biological pump work in the amazon rainforest carbon cycle?
Marine organisms enable carbon to be exchanged between oceans and atmosphere.
Use dissolved CO2 with sun, water and oxygen to produce organic materials.
Carbon in phytoplankton ends up wither decomposing and releasing CO2 into oceans or Accumulate on oceans floor in sediments
26
what are the physical factors affecting stores and flows in the Amazon water cycle?
Geology
Relief
Temperature
27
how does geology affect stores and flows in the amazon water cycle?
In areas with permeable geology, there is greater storage of rainwater and slow runoff
In areas with impermeable rock (most of Amazon) there is high runoff due to minimal storage capacity
28
how does relief affect stores and flows in the amazon water cycle?
In lowlands (majority) water will go to river in overland flow or through the soil
In the highlands there is high amounts of overland flow and rapid runoff
29
how does temperature affect stores and flows in the amazon water cycle?
High rates of evapotranspiration (link to high temp)
Strong convection means high atmospheric humidity.
Cumulo-nimbus clouds and intense precipitation are frequent.
Constant cycling of water between lithosphere, biosphere and atmosphere through evaporation, transpiration and precipitation.
30
what are the physical factors affecting the amazon carbon cycle?
Climate growing conditions
Biomass
Climate decomposition rates
Geology
31
how does climate growing conditions affect the amazon carbon cycle?
Hot, humid, high rainfall, high sunlight means high primary productivity due to high photosynthesis.
Cycles carbon between atmosphere, forest, soil and living organisms.
Net primary productivity is 2500g/m2/year
32
what is net primary productivity in the amazon carbon cycle?
2500g/m2/year
33
how does biomass affect the amazon carbon cycle?
Trees are main carbon store and 100 billon tonnes of carbon are locked here
2.4 billion is abosrbed a year.
1.7 billion is released a year
34
how much carbon is locked in rainforest trees?
100 billion tonnes
35
how much carbon is absorbed by biomass in the amazon?
2.4 billion tonnes a year
36
how much carbon is released by biomass in the amazon?
1.7 billion tonnes a year
37
how does climate decomposition rates affect the amazon carbon cycle?
Decomposition is rapid in rainforests due to hot humid climate
Decomposed organic litter release nutrients which get taken up by trees
38
why is decomposition in the amazon rainforest?
due to the hot humid equatorial climate
39
how does geology affect the amazon carbon cycle?
Igneous and metamorphic rocks in which carbon is largely absent
Close to the Andes is limestone which is a significant regional carbon store
40
what is the geology in the amazon lowlands?
crystalline impermeable rocks
41
what is the geology in the amazon highlands
limestone
42
what is the human impact on the amazon water cycle?
deforestation
43
how much of the amazon has been lost in the last 50 years?
nearly 20% of the primary forest
44
how much deforestation is required for the amazon's tropical climate to dry out?
20-25%
45
how much deforestation occured in the amazon between 1970-2013?
17,500km2 a year
46
how much of the amazon is in Brazil?
70%
47
how much land does the amazon cover?
more than 6 million km2
48
how much of the precipitation in the amazon basin is from evapotranspiration?
1/3
49
how does deforestation affect the amazon water cycle?
- temp increases
- less precipitation
- rainfall over cleared land instead of rainforest
- increased river discharge as surface runoff occurs
50
how does deforestation cause the temperature to increase in the amazon?
Reduced evapotranspiration from trees reduces the humidity and therefore cloud cover.
More solar radiation reaches the ground (less cloud cover).
Temperature then increases
51
how does deforestation cause rainfall over cleared land in the amazon?
Air over cleared land warms faster and rises more quickly.
This creates localised low pressure.
Moist air from forest moves from high pressure to low pressure.
This rises, cools, and creates rainfall over the cleared land
52
what are flying rivers?
Wind that contains moisture moving from above oceans to land
53
how much water do flying rivers hold?
20 billion tonnes of water a day
54
what does the biotic pump theory highlight?
Vulnerability of rainforest areas with deforestation
Tree loss makes areas desert-like
55
what does the biotic pump theory suggest?
Suggest that by strategically replanting forests, it might be possible to attract rain
56
what is the example of how human activity has modified the water cycle in a rainforest?
Madeira Drainage Basin
57
how big is the Madeira Drainage Basin?
2x the size of Spain.
900,000 km2
58
what is the largest tributary of the amazon river?
madeira river
59
how long is the madeira river?
3,380km long
60
how much of the water in the amazon basin is found in the Madeira river?
15%
61
what happened in April 2014 in the Madeira drainage basin?
Major flooding
Rainfall was 100% above normal and was 74% higher discharge at Porto Velho
60 died
68,000 evacuated
62
how many died in the Madeira Drainage Basin floods?
60 died
63
how many were evacuated in the Madeira Drainage Basin floods?
68,000 people
64
what were the changes in the stores in the Madeira Drainage Basin due to deforestation?
Reduced water storage in:
- trees
- soil
- permeable rocks
- atmosphere
65
what were the changes in the flows in the Madeira Drainage Basin due to deforestation?
- less evapotranspiration (less trees)
- less precipitation (biotic pump ruined)
- total runoff and speed of runoff has increased
66
how much land was cleared in the Madeira Drainage Basin between 2000-2012 and what was the use?
30,000km2 was cleared for sustenance farming and cattle ranching
67
what was the impact of deforestation in the Madeira Drainage Basin
- converting forest to grassland increases runoff by 27 times
- 50% of falling rain goes straight into rivers
- soil erosion increases by 10 times which then reduces river capacity
- lead to permenant climate change as it breaks the water cycle
68
what happens to runoff when forest is converted to grassland (crops)?
it increases by 27 times
69
how much does soil erosion increase by after deforestation?
10 times
70
how much of falling rain goes into rivers after deforestation?
50%
71
what is the human impacts on the carbon cycle in the amazon?
deforestation
72
what impact does deforestation have on the rainforest being a carbon sink?
- reduction in carbon store (less trees)
- short term increase in carbon
- overall reduced flow of carbon from soil to atmosphereh
73
how much less carbon does forest shrub hold compared to primary forest?
40% less
74
what happens to the nutrients in the soil after deforestation in the amazon?
- nutrient store destroyed as trees are removes
- nutrient flows are broken down, not taken up by roots
- nutrients therefore are washed out of the soil by rainwater
- soil erosion further reduces the nutrients as they get washed away with the soil
75
what did the Brazilian government commit to doing in the rainforest by 2030?
To restore 120,000 km2 of the rainforest
76
what are the three categories of management strategies in the amazon?
Protection of remaining primary forest
Reforestation
Improving agricultural techniques
77
what is the programme for protection of remaining primary forest in the amazon?
The Amazon Region Protected Areas Programme (ARPA)
78
what is the amazon region protected areas programme (ARPA)?
A pledge made by the Brazilian government to triple the area of the Amazon that's under legal protection
It was pledged in 1988 but began in 2003
79
when was the amazon region protected areas programme (ARPA) pledged?
1988
80
when was amazon region protected areas programme (ARPA) started?
2003
81
who is involved in amazon region protected areas programme (ARPA)?
Government
NGOs (non government organisations)
WWF
82
how is amazon region protected areas programme (ARPA) financed?
Protected Areas Trust fund that is controlled by the world bank
83
what are the aims of amazon region protected areas programme (ARPA)?
Establish new protected areas for strict conversation
Transform existing but neglected parks
Establish sustainable use reserves e.g. selective logging
84
what are the successes of amazon region protected areas programme (ARPA)?
75% decrease between 2000-2012 in Brazil's deforestation rates
128 million acres protected by ARPA currently (1500,000km2)
1.4 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions have been avoided
85
how many acres of the amazon is protected by amazon region protected areas programme (ARPA)?
128 million acres
1500,000km2
86
what are the reforestation techniques in the amazon?
Parica project
REDD+ (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation)
Surui Forest Carbon Project (2009-2018)
87
what is the Parica Project?
A sustainable forestry scheme aiming to develop a 100km2 commercial timber plantation on government-owned deforested land
88
how does the parica project work?
Aims for 20 million fast growing tropical hardwood seedlings, planted on 4000 smallholdings to mature over 25 years.
Financial assitant is given to smallholders for land preperation, planting and maintenance and they are provided with the seedlings
89
how many trees does parica project aim to plant?
20 million
90
how long does it take trees in parica project to grow?
25 years
91
negatives of the parica project
It doesn't replicate the biodiversity of primary forest as the trees they are planting is monoculture
92
positives of the parica project
It is sustainable
- sequesters carbon in trees and soil
- reduce CO2 emissions from deforestation
- reduce runoff and loss of plant nutrient and carbon from soil
93
what is REDD+
A framework to encourage developing countries to reduce emissions and enhance removal of greenhouse gases through a variety of forest management options to provide techincal and financial support for their efforts
94
who are the Surui people?
indigenous group in Rondonia
95
what do the Surui people do?
They are paid to protect the rainforest.
They are given carbon credits which can be purchased by international companies which hae exceeded their carbon emissions.
96
what are the Surui people part of?
the REDD+ scheme
97
what do the Surui people use the money they gain from selling carbon credits for?
Build a tree nursery, chicken farming, handicrafts
98
successes of REDD and Surui people?
Project generated 299,895 carbon offsets with each offset represetning one metric ton of CO2 kept out of atmosphere
99
what are the improved agricultural techniques in the amazon?
- combining livestock and crop operations
- rotational cropping - maintain fertility and prevent soil exhaustion
- planting perenial plants - restore nutrients and grow for years without being replanted
- diversification
- Inga Alley cropping
100
how is inga alley cropping an improved agricultural technique?
- Inga trees are nitrogen fixing trees
- they shade out the weeds, providing crops with shade and protection
- it is sustainable and doesn't require artificial fertilisers
101
what is terra pretta?
a type of very dark fertile manmade soil found in amazon
102
how is terra pretta made?
adding charcoal, human manure and waste to the infertile amazon soil
103
what does terra pretta do?
allows the amazon soil to have its fertility retained
104
is the tundra or rainforest bigger?
the tundra
105
how much land does the Arctic tundra cover?
8 million km2 in Alaska, Siberia and North Canada
106
what is the climate like in the arctic tundra?
Extreme cold climate
8-9 months in negative heat balance - average temp below freezing
Winter temp can reach -40C in extremes
Temp becomes extreme at northerly most latitudes
107
what are the plants and animals like in the arctic tundra?
Low biodiversity
Treeless - extreme temp
Lichen, moss and low shrubs are most common
Might be continuous ground cover in low arctic.
Discontinuous plant cover in high arctic.
Animals are wall adapted to extremes
108
how much of the world's carbon is in the tundra soil?
1/2
this makes up 1/3 moveable carbon
109
which biome is the most vulnerable to global warming?
the tundra
110
what are the flows in the arctic tundra water cycle?
Low annual precipitation - most is snow
Low evaporation rates
Permafrost is barrier so no infiltration, percolation and groundwater flow
111
what is the annual precipitation in the tundra?
50-350mm
112
what is the annual precipitation in rainforest vs tundra?
2500mm in forest compared to 50-350mm in tundra
113
why is there low evaporation rates in the tundra?
- Ground temperature is low so there is no convection
- For most of the year, water is frozen
114
what are the stores in the arctic tundra?
Low absolute humidity meaning little moisture in air due to low temp
Limited groundwater and soil moisture stores due to permafrost
In winter, water is stored as snow
In summer there is a thermokast landscape as water cant drain due to permafrost
115
what is a thermokast landscape?
Temporary store of liquid water as lake, pond or wetland
116
what are the flows in the arctic tundra carbon cycle?
Carbon flux in summer when active layer thaws.
Carbon rich litter contributes to soil during summer.
CO2 is released through respiration as microorganisms increase in summer.
Permafrost is seen as carbon source due to global warming. Thawing then means decomposers respire.
117
what are the stores in the arctic tundra carbon cycle?
Amount of carbon in soil is 5x that above ground.
Small biomass due to low net primary productivity.
High amount of carbon locked in plant litter (slow decomposition)
118
how much carbon is stored in the permafrost?
1600GT globally
119
how much carbon in the biomass in the tundra?
4-29 tonnes/hectare
120
what is the net primary productivity in the tundra?
Low
200g/m2/year
121
what is the net primary productivity in rainforest compared to tundra?
2000g/m2/year in rainforest
200g/m2/year in tundra
122
how long does litter take to decompose in the amazon?
6 weeks
123
what are the physical factors affecting the arctic tundra water cycle?
Climate
Rock type and permeability
Relief
124
how does climate affect the tundra water cycle?
- water is mainly ground ice for most of year
- temp limits evapotranspiration
- climate limits humidity all year
- as temp increases with climate change, there is more evapotranspiration leading to more moisture and higher humidity
125
what happens as the arctic tundra temperature increases with climate change?
there will be more evapotranspiration leading to more moisture and highER humidity
126
how does rock type and permeability affect arctic tundra water cycle?
- crystalline rocks dominate and there is minimal permeability
- permafrost is the key limiter for permeability
127
what is the main rock type in the tundra?
crystalline rocks
128
how does relief affect arctic tundra water cycle?
- gentle slopes, so minimal runoff in the summer
- where land is flat, water stays and causes waterlogging which leads to anaerobic respiration - release methane and stop decomposition
129
what are the physical factors affecting the arctic tundra carbon cycle?
Climate
Presence of permafrost
130
how does climate affect arctic tundra carbon cycle?
- frozen conditions/low temp means carbon is mianly stored in permafrost
- ver little biomass carbon store due to limited plant growth
- decomposition and respiration is slow/limited due to temp
131
how long is carbon locked in permafrost for in the arctic tundra?
500,000 years
132
how does presence of permafrost affect arctic tundra carbon cycle?
Rock type
Permeability and porosity has little influence due to the permafrost
133
what are the seasonal changes in the water cycle in the tundra?
- Melting of active layer means liquid water flows and stores on the surface in the summer
- Evapotranspiration varies through the year going from none in winter to some in summer
- Water-logging occurs during summer due to permafrost stopping drainage
134
what are the seasonal changes in the carbon cycle in the tundra?
- carbon store in biomass is low but greater during short growing season - higher temp and more water
- some carbon emissions in summer with increase in activity of micro-organisms with CO2 released through respiration
135
what is the human impacts on the tundra?
Developing oil and gas production on the water and carbon cycles in Alaska
136
when was oil discovered in arctic tundra?
1968
Found in Prudhoe Bay
137
what were/are the challenges with developing oil and gas in the tundra?
- Extreme temp
- Long hours of darkness
- Lack of accessibility
- Permafrost
- Melting of active layer in summer
- Fragile wilderness
138
How much of the USA's domestic oil production did North Slope account for?
nearly 25%
Now is less than 6%
139
why is the permafrost melting in the arctic tundra?
- Construction of buildings diffuse heating into ground
- removal of vegetation cover (which insulates)
- dust deposition has darkened snow surface and increased sunlight absorption
140
what is the impact of permafrost melting on tundra's water cycle?
- increased runoff
- river discharge increase
- more flooding
- greater evaporation in summer
- artificial lakes made by strip mining
- road construction have disrupted drainage networks
- in winter, ice-roads are built - reduce runoff
- water abstracted from rivers for industrial use
141
what are the impacts on the tundra carbon cycle?
Melting of the permafrost
Oil and gas prospecting
Industrial development/settlement
142
what is the impact of melting permafrost on the tundra carbon cycle?
- Large amounts of CO2 and methane released
- Frozen plant material thaws and begins to decay, releasing gas
- 40 million tonnes of CO2 lost a year from melting
- 114,000 tonnes of methane lost a year from melting
143
how many tonnes of carbon dioxide is lost from permafrost melting in tundra?
40 million a year
144
how many tonnes of methane is lost from permafrost melting in tundra?
114,000 a year
145
what is the impact of oil and gas prospecting on tundras carbon cycle?
Gas flaring and oil spills (Prudhoe Bay) input CO2 into the atmosphere
146
what is the impact of industrial development/settlements on tundra carbon cycle?
- Destruction of vegetation reduces photosynthesis meaning less CO2 is taken in and also the permafrost is vulnerable to melting (remove insulation)
- Thawing of soil increases decomposition and bacteria respiration
147
what are the strategies used to reduce the impact of oil extraction on tundra water and carbon cycles?
Insulated ice and gravel pads
Buildings and pipelines elevated on piles
Drilling laterally beyond drilling platforms
More powerful computers can detect oil and gas
Refrigerated support
148
How does insulated ice and gravel pads help reduce human impacts on Tundra water and carbon cycles?
Roads and other infrastructure should be built on insulating pads to protect the permafrost from heat
149
How does buildings and pipelines elevated on piles help reduce human impacts on tundra water and carbon cycles?
Constructing infastructure on piles allows cold air to circulate underneath, providing insulation
150
how does drilling laterally beyond drilling platforms help reduce human impacts on tundra water and carbon cycles?
Fewer sites for drilling means damage to vegetation and permafrost is reduced
151
how does more powerful computers detecting oil and gas help reduce human impacts on tundra water and carbon cycles?
Fewer exploration wells, so there is less damage to the environment
152
how does refrigerated supports help reduce human impacts on tundra water and carbon cycles?
Conserve permafrost beneath the infastructure
153
