Elizabethan to Neoclassicism?

Question 1

About apology for poetry?

Answer 1

• Sir Philip Sydney is considered as a true “Renaissance Man” as he had all the characteristics of an ideal one. Apart from being a poet and an essayist, he was a military man and a statesmen.
• His An Apology for Poetry came as a response to an essay entitled The School of Abuse published in 1579 by a Puritan minister, Stephen Gosson, which attempted to reject poetry as it is limited to the aristocrats.

Question 2

Gosson’s attack on poetry?

Answer 2

Gosson’s Attack on Poetry
• According to Gosson.
• 1) People can use their time more effectively than in poetry,
• 2) It is the mother of lies,
• 3) it is the nurse of abuse,
• 4) Plato was right to remove poets from his republic.

Question 3

What does Sidney means by Poetry is the first light giver to ignorance,”

Answer 3

• Musaeus, Homer and Hesiod belonged to science, but were also poets.
• And the first Greek philosophers Thales, Empedocles, Parmenides, and Pythagoras, used verse to express their philosophy.
• Plato also used dialogue and description of situations, which are poetic devices, in order to spread his philosophy.
• Again, historians such as Herodotus have borrowed the “fashion” and the “weight” of poetry.
• In Roman, poets were called vates, meaning “diviner, foreseer, or prophet, so poets were given a heavenly title.
• If we consider Psalms of David as a “divine poem,” it is nothing but Songs in verse written in meter.
• Therefore Poetry shouldn’t be termed as “ridiculous an estimation” into which it has lapsed, and it doesn’t deserve to be scourged out of the Church of God”
• Sidney reminds the reader that the Greek origin of the English word “poet” was the word poiein, meaning “to make”.
• Whether it is an astronomer looking at the star to find out what order has nature created, geometrician and arithmetician examine quantities as ordered in nature; the natural philosopher examines physical nature, and the moral philosopher considers the natural virtues and vices, grammarians speak about the rules, physicians weighs the nature of a man’s body.
• However, it’s only the poet who has his/her own invention and transcends nature. They are not dependent on nature. They make things even better than nature.

Question 4

Why did Sidney say that There are no other kind of knowledge more fruitful than poetry

Answer 4

• Oratio and ratio: Speech and reason are the greatest gifts given to human beings.
• Poetry sharpens the gift of speech and it is much greater than prose as it gives delight because of the particular way of ordering the words which makes it easer to be memorised.
• It is more fruitful knowledge than anything else as it teaches and moves everyone towards virtue.

Question 5

What is Sidney’s response to Poetry is the mother of lies?

Answer 5

• Sidney responses by saying that the poet never claims to be truthful therefore one cannot say that they lie, whereas the merit of a historian hangs upon their claim towards being truthful and factual about their writings.
• A poet talks about what should be instead of what is, writing allegorically and figuratively.

Question 6

What does Sideny say about “Poetry abuses men’s wit towards sinful activities and lustful love.”

Answer 6

• Sidney blames those poets who use poetry for ulterior motives than to teach and delight, and abuse their art.
• Poetry doesn’t abuse men, but men abuse poetry
• Sidney says that “neither philosopher nor historiographer, could at the first have entered into the gates of popular judgments if they had not taken a great passport of poetry”.
• His response is directed towards the attack on Poetry by Gosson that poetry is useless, nurse of abuse. He gives examples of science, philosophy and history which are quite useful and important for our knowledge and education using poetry as a form and method to express information and thoughts effectively.

Question 7

What does Sidney say about Philosopher are the natural enemy of poetry?

Answer 7

• Plato believed that and that is why he banished poets from his republic.
• Sidney suggests that Plato is talking about the early Greek Poetry of his time rather than poetry itself. He is more concerned about how poets of his time talked about Gods and religion which can corrupt youth.
• But not Christianity has removed that belief.
• Poetry is a divine force, far above man’s wit.
• There are many great men like Aristotle, Alexander, Plutarch and Caesar admired poetry.

Question 8

What is Sidney’s view on Poetry as an art of imitation?

Answer 8

• Like Aristotle, Sidney believed that poetry is an art of imitation which represents reality in the closest possible way by using metaphors and imagery.
• In the end, the aim of a poet is to teach and delight. It has to be a combination of both and not just one in order to be a great poet.
Three kinds of imitations

• He talks about three kinds of imitation by the poets.
• First, a poet derives from the heavenly maker to create his divine works like what Homer or Orpheus did, and all poets should use poetry for the same purpose. Poetry in using “wit” also shows the perfection that can be achieved by poets, which is restricted because of the original sin.
• The second kind of imitation by the poet deals with philosophical, moral, natural or historical like the works of Cato, Lucretius etc. Here the poets rely more upon the subject itself than their own inventions.
• He favours the third kind of imitation, where the poets do not follow any law but follow their own wit. They imitate to teach and delight and are concerned not about what has happened in the past, but with what is happening and what should happen in the future.
• Therefore, the poet now is free of nature as they are not restricted to any given matter, as they are not concerned about reality but with what might happen in an ideal world.
• The aim, in the end, is moral as they want the readers to achieve goodness, and delight them to appreciate goodness.

Question 9

What are the main competition of Poetry According to Sidney?

Answer 9

• The main competition for poetry in this respect is moral philosophy and history.
• A moral philosopher believes that what he teaches are directly related to virtue and vice therefore his path of virtue is more direct
• A historian will claim that they teach by giving concrete examples whereas moral philosopher teaches virtue by using “certain abstract considerations”
• There is a third example, that is of a lawyer, who only teaches outwards virtue rather than seeking to change individuals from inside.
• Sidney believes that both Moral philosopher and a historian are not complete as they are one-sided. First only gives perception and the other just gives examples. They are limited to being abstract or general.
• Only a poet can combine both in one, as they mix general notions with particular examples.
• A poet can paint a perfect picture like a philosopher using their abstract insight.
• The teaching provided by poetry is more than philosophy as it has more force than the wordish description of philosophy.
• It is the elite, learned mind which can truly understand philosophy, whereas poetry can be understood by everyone.
• That is why he considers a poet to be the ‘right popular philosopher’,
• Poetry can affect people’s emotions and influence them more that any teaching.
• He believes, like Aristotle that poetry is more philosophical than philosophy and more studiously serious than history.
• Aristotle used the term Kathalou(universal) for poetry dealing with probability and necessity (ought to be) and Kathekaston(particular) for history, dealing with what happened in reality (what is)
• He believes that unlike historians who is tied to reality without having any liberty to present what should be the ideal way a person behaves; a poet can present a character in history as the way she or he should be portrayed.
• A poet can make things more beautiful and delightful than they actually are.
• A poet should be given the laurel crown as victorious not just of the historians but also the philosophers as he is allowed to have the freedom to portray virtue in her best colours by choosing the appropriate material and patterns that are ideal.
• He wants to overturn the hierarchy of knowledge by placing the poet over all the sciences.
• Poetry for him should remove theology as it makes the man overcome lower nature and he has the access to God.
• Sidney considers Heroic poetry to be the best as it instructs the mind and most inflames the mind with the desire to be worthy.
• Function of poetry: to teach people virtue, to move people towards virtuous action and to make them aware of the worthlessness of mundane life.
• Poet is a preacher apart.

Question 10

About Essay on Dramatic Poesy?

Answer 10

Essay on Dramatic Poesy by John Dryden
• Written in 1666 when London theatres were getting closed due to plague.
• The essay is in a dialogue form. Four friends are discussing about different aspects of British and Classical theatre on the river Thames.
• Neander represented Dryden, and rest of them presented other point of views prevalent among different critics during the period of restoration.
• They were resting on a barrage when there was a naval battle between England and Dutch taking place.

Question 11

What was the view of the four critics on what is a play?

Answer 11

• They all agreed that a play is a
A just and lively Image of Humane Nature, representing its Passions and Humors, and the Changes of Fortune to which it is subject; for the Delight and Instruction of Mankind.

Question 12

Who do the four critics support in Essay on Dramatic Poesy?

Answer 12

• Crites is in support of the classical ones. They were the ones who developed drama under Aristotle and Horace.
• Lisideius is in favour of the French Dramatists and doesn’t like the way the English Dramatists do not adhere to one fix genre and combine different genres.
• Eugenius attacks the Roman and Greek dramatists while being supportive of the English ones.
• Neander favours the Moderns but also respects the Classicals.
• He believes that Tragi-comedy is the best kind of theatre.

Question 13

What are Crites’s view on Drama?

Answer 13

• Crites believes that the Modern writers imitate Ancient Classical writers by using their forms and subjects
• He also believed that the Classical playwrights has a special greatness in the genre of Drama and they were almost perfect.
• These playwrights were most honoured in their era and there were competitions organized where they were rewarded according to their merit by the judges of high repute.
• But in England, instead of honour or healthy competition there is only malice and criticism.
• Crites believes that it takes a lot of work to imitate the Ancients encouragement is needed for that. Nature is not represented properly in the way the Ancient used to observe and present in their plays.
• England is indebted to the Ancients for learning the rules of Drama, Symmetry of the plot or episodic ornaments, but didn’t really improve upon it.
• He also says that the Moderns don’t follow the Three unities.
• Unity of time: English plays don’t stick to that and uses long period of time.
• Unity of Place: The English plays go all over the place and not stick one location or even one city.
• Unity of Action: English plays have several sub-plots and doesn’t stick one great and complete action.

Question 14

What does Eugenius believe about Drama?

Answer 14

• Eugenius replies Crites by saying that he cannot think of his country with such negativity. English poets are many times equal to the Ancients and in some matters even surpass them. Even the Ancients were Modern in comparison to the writers before them. He then asks to limit the discussion to one particular genre of Poetry
• Crites accepts that and suggests to limit the dialogue to Dramatic Poetry.
• Eugenius gives examples of great writers like Sir John Suckling and Mr. Waller who wrote court writings much better than the Ancients, or Mr Abraham Cowley.
• About Italian, French and Spanish Plays he believed English Plays have been and are far better than them.
• He says that the Moderns have learnt from the Ancients but have surpassed them by not just blind imitation but drawing from Nature and life before us instead of mere lines of the Ancients. He then illustrates the shortcomings of Ancients.
Greek Poesy was not perfect, as they didn’t divide them into acts and we cannot understand it. We only are aware of the singing of their chorus which were quite repetitive.
• Aristotle had divided Plot into: Protasis: Entrance of the characters; Epitatis, or working up of the plot’ Catastasis or counterturn which destroys our expectations from the plays and makes you hopeless about any finality; and Catastrophe, (in French Le Denouement) which is the unravelling of the plot.
• The moderns divide acts into scenes, therefore are quite good at dividing the play. Spanish writers used to divide plays into three acts and although their characterisation was good, their imitation of nature was not good.
• For Ancients, he says that they didn’t have too much action but more narration. They used monologue instead of dialogue to impart information about a scene, which was quite boring.
• The Ancients didn’t observe the three unities properly. Euripides committed several absurd acts although he was good with unity of time.
• There is no poetic justice in their plays, it didn’t end with punished vices and giving rewards to the virtues. Instead, the villains used to get rich and the good souls were facing unhappiness.
• They used lust, cruelty, murder etc as themes that aroused terror instead of pity. Their showing of love was never as good as Shakespeare or Fletcher.
• Ancients followed these rules effectively and organize their plays well. Their language was elegant but we cannot appreciate the nuances as the languages are dead now.

Question 15

What does Lisideius think about Drama?

Answer 15

• He favours French Drama over English and the Ancients. He believes that the earlier generation of Beaumont, Jonson, and Fletcher were great, but the current generation is not good. The French dramatist Corneille is better than any contemporary dramatist in England.
• French Dramatists follow the ancient playwrights as they follow the three unities properly. Their plays are not heavy in the plot, having one single action, within a particular limited time.
• English introduce unnecessary conflicts resulting in action which is not coherent with the original plot and they are not even logical in many cases.
• He doesn’t like English Drama because of Tragic-comedy, which he thinks is absurd as it doesn’t follow the three unities at all.
There is no Theatre in the world has any thing so absurd as the English Tragicomedy, ’tis a Drama of our own invention, and the fashion of it is enough to proclaim it so, here a course of mirth, there another of sadness and passion; a third of honor, and fourth a Due
• Plots in French Drama is based on truth mixed with fiction and are adapted beautifully for the theatre. However, Dramatists like Shakespeare do not do anything new with the material for theatre.
• Drama should resemble the reality as much as it is possible and the French follow that rule, the English don’t.
• As far as the characterisation goes French do not neglect other characters which is how it happens in reality, while the English emphasize more on one or two major characters.
• Narration is better in French and not dull or boring. They don’t use scenes where there is a lot of bloodshed and violence as it may create horror in the minds of the audience. English on the other hand, use these scenes quite often. The French also avoid death scenes as it would never look real.

Question 16

What are the views of Neander?

Answer 16

• English dramatists are best at “the lively imitation of nature” or human nature. French poesy is only as beautiful as an statue.
For the lively imitation of Nature being in the definition of a Play, those which best fulfill that law ought to be esteemed superior to the others.
• There is always surprise in English plays which teaches and entertains us. He believes that English plays are more real and we are suspending our disbelief therefore, it is good to show blood on stage the way it is seen in reality.
• When the English Dramatists violate the three unities that help them to feel more like reality, unlike French theatre where the unities restricts them in doing that. In order to become a just and lively picture of human nature unities shouldn’t always be followed. Ex. Shakespeare’s plays.
• Ben Jonson followed the unites and was good in doing that in his The Silent Woman
• As for as unity of action, sub-plots add variety to a play and makes it more real.
• It is all about dramatic illusion, and unities, when disregarded in a control and probable way which is not beyond the imagination of the audience, can lead to a better connection with the audience.
• He favours Tragi-comedy as it provides contraries that set each other off and gives a variety in the monotonous straightforward tragedy.
• The serious effect of tragedy doesn’t get diluted by the mixing the two things.
• It brings contrast to the play, a sad scene can refresh us from continuous comic representation, and when a comic scene happens after a sad scene, it satisfies the audience more.
• Aristotle would have revisited his works if he had seen tragi-comedies.

Question 17

What are their views on Rhyme?

Answer 17

Crites advocates against the use of rhyme while favouring the blank verse over that. He believes that it should never be used in tragedy or epics, but can be used for comic effect. It doesn’t sound great in plays, as the plays are about dialogues and people do not always speak in rhyme. Blank verse is closer to the real speech and Aristotle had said that:
”Tis best to write Tragedy in that kind of verse which is the least such, or which is nearest Prose: and this amongst the Ancients was the Iambique, and with us is blank verse.”
Neander Rhyme can be said in a natural way by using run-on-lines and manipulation of pauses and stresses and change in meter.
Blank verse is poetic prose and should not to be considered as verse. Only rhyme is perfect for Tragedy as it is also used by all the nations.
Moderns cannot use blank verse the way earlier dramatists used them, and therefore should use rhyme instead.
Rhyme is suited for tragedy represents nature in a serious way, it suites Tragedy and not comedy. It gives us more pleasure to listen to rhyme.

Question 18

About An Essay on Criticism?

Answer 18

Alexander Pope (1688-1744)
An Essay on Criticism (1711)
The first drafts of the work were written in Abberley in 1707
Composed in heroic couplets

• Divided into three different parts
• Part I – Indictment on false critics
• Part II - Obstacles to good criticism
• Part III – Wisdom of true critics

Question 19

What does Pope say about Bad Critics?

Answer 19

Part 1: Bad Critics
‘Tis hard to say if greater want of skill
Appear in writing or in judging ill,
• He satirically compares the skill needed to write bad poetry and bad criticism, by asking which one needs more skill, writing badly or judging the works in the wrong way?
• Pope uses Heroic Couplet, a form mostly used in serious or tragic works, but for satire or mocking someone. i.e. Mock Heroic. Mock Heroic Style is one of the features of his works.
• Question raised??
• But he believes that it is surely the criticism which is more dangerous as it is tiring for our patience than poetry which only misleads our emotions towards the wrong direction.
• Bad criticism is worse than bad poetry, as it plays with our patience proving bad judgement of works. Writing bad criticism hurts poetry more than writing bad poetry.
• There are more bad critics in number than bad poets,
• 10 bad critics:1 bad poet.
• It doesn’t require basic quality of versification to become a critic, so anyone can become one.

Question 20

What does Pope say about Judgment by Critics?

Answer 20

• Each critic believes in their judgements, but it is difficult to find a true genius with a true taste that critics can share which other.
• Like poets, critics should be gifted. They can be considered as a genius, but that is difficult to found.
• Both critics and poets need to find enlightenment from God. Here we can see that he believes that good critics, like good poets, have to be gifted by the Gods, and are naturally born.
• It is appropriate for those who write well to criticise and to censor people who are bad writers as freely as they can.
• Here Pope belief that only good poets can make good critics can be felt.
• Like the writers who believe their genius, critics as well believe that their judgement is paramount.
• We can see that Pope is trying to draw a connection between the author’s subjectivity and critic’s, who are considered to be objective. Critics are also partial to their judgement similar to the way poets are, and hence we cannot take everything written by critics to be granted.

Question 21

What does Pope say about Judgment as a true gift for critics?

Answer 21

• Here he believes that everyone has a gift of judgement by nature, but those who judge badly can be compared to bad painters in the bad sketching and ‘ill colouring’ and is more disgraceful. They have wrongly learnt the skills to critique. Trying to be witty, they lose their ‘common sense’.
• Those turn critics in their defence as they cannot themselves write properly and are envious of other good poets who are their rivals. They want to hurt as the rival of good writers like eunuchs(not fertile). Here he compares bad poets with eunuchs, as they do not have the seed of good poetry inside them.
• These bad poets become bad critics as they are here for a wrong reason, i.e. to hurt their rivals by their words of criticism.

Question 22

What are different bad critics according to Pope?

Answer 22

1. those who first thought of themselves of having the wit and started writing poetry,
2. Some neither having any wit nor could become a good critic.
   He asks them to be sure of their genius and taste before becoming a critic and not just seek the noble name of being a critic without learning the skills.

Question 23

What is Pope’s first advise to good critics?

Answer 23

First solution:

• Nature is created by God is the essence of truth that is permanent. The meaning of nature also includes a critic’s nature.
• A critic’s first job is to follow the true essence and truth, by being closer to the creation of God including themselves. For that, one has to shed all the ego. Only by doing that one can find out the relevance of their judgement.
• Wit is more inventive and as important as nature and sometimes it requires judgement(something which is not natural like wit). Hence, although wit and judgement are opposite to each other they have to live together. Poetry and criticism have to live together in harmony, although both are quite opposite to each other. One is more natural, the other more analytical.
• Second solution: learn the “rules of old,”

Question 24

What is Pope’s second advise to Good critics?

Answer 24

• Pope praises the classical rules of Greek and Roman authors by saying that they were inspired by nature but applied the method to their inspiration.
• Nature should be used in restrain like liberty in the same way which it was created like in order, by God.
In the four lines above, Pope is praising the classical works of Aristotle and Horace, where although they were inspired by their genius or imaginativeness, they followed certain rules and decorum in their works.
He also says that in the classical days, a generous critic would inspire a poet like a handmaid would inspire a bride, more supportive than being vicious,

• The modern critics in contrast are although believe themselves to be inspired by the ancient writers, are destructive even more than time or moths. Some of them have no invention and are quite plain, and some just dictate how a poem should be written rather than understanding how the poet has written.
• These critics are always antagonists to the poets rather than being helpful to the art. For them, poetry is end in itself and has no further use than to help these bad critics.
• Those critics who are good in their judgements know pretty well about the ancient rules and are not like the modern bad critics. They know that it would be wrong the follow the ancients blindly.

Question 25

What is Pope’s third advice to good critics?

Answer 25

• Pope advises that a critic should know about every aspect of the work, whether it is the religion of the author, country where he belongs to and the genius that his period has provided to the form of poetry.
He gives examples of great writers like Homer, who study and delight and became a part of nature themselves. He followed the rules vigorously to achieve his genius.
• Therefore, one should learn the ancient rules as copying them is like nature itself.

There should be careful in following the rules as poetry has beauty which can’t be judged well following the rules strictly, poetry is similar to music as no method can teach great poetry. There has to be a certain genius behind good poetry.
• Rules should not hamper the result that the poet wants to achieve. There should be flexibility in a poet to follow or break the rule as demanded by the poem.
152-157
• Inspired from the idea of sublime given by Longinus, Pope believes that sometimes the poets go beyond rules and can ‘gloriously offend, and these ‘faults’ shouldn’t be mended by the critics.
• But, the critics should censor those who are using their poetic license wrongly.

Question 26

What does Pope say about first reason of blind judgment by critics?

Answer 26

In part two he deals with the reasons behind the blind judgment of a critic and his/her mind is going towards the wrong path.
1: “Pride is one of the most common reasons for bad criticism. (201-214)
• Pride never fails to make fools of the critics, as their wrong judgment because of pride establishes them as lacking critical faculty. Wherever there a lack of wit and judgment, it is pride which is the main reason behind that. It fills the void that lack of wit or sense makes.
• Whenever the pride goes away, the truth comes in front, therefore one should learn about self from friends as well as enemies.
• Pope’s belief in pride being the biggest sin is quite similar to the Christian idea of sin and vices, where Pride is at the topmost level.

Question 27

What does Pope say about depth of knowledge?

Answer 27

• Another big reason for bad criticism is a lack of learning. It becomes quite dangerous both for the critic as well as the work that is being criticised. Therefore, the critics should always dig deeper into the depth of knowledge, if they want to become good critics. If they can’t then they should avoid becoming a critic. He compares knowledge with Pierian spring (which is a fountain in Pieria, a district around Mount Olympus and the native country of the Muses.) It is a metaphor for knowledge of arts and science.
• The critic must have understood all the aspect of poetry to criticise it. If they can’t they will only become a victim of their pride and think of themselves to be more knowledgeable than they are.

Question 28

What does Pope say about Love of parts?

Answer 28

• A bad critic doesn’t see the poem in its entirety, but see only its aspects like metaphors, ornaments, conceits, style etc.
• Pope asks the critics to survey the whole of the poem, including its poet and don’t try to find small issues. Nature can be seen in its totality and can get inside one’s mind.
• They should read the work thinking about what the writer wants to convey and what is the result of the work.
• Pope gives the example of Don Quixote, by telling the story of a knight, who didn’t want the play by a bard to have combat. Pope believes that a poem is no good unless it has combat in it (267-284).
The critics like the knight only love things in part but not in entirety.
Pope discusses different aspects or part that critics like mentioned above like.
• 1: Conceit (elaborate, clever tropes) (289-304).
Some to conceit alone their taste confine,
And glittering thoughts struck out at every line;

• 2: The eloquence of language

True wit is nature to advantage dressed;
What oft was thought, but ne’er so well expressed;
One example: archaic language
• Wit or thought is an expression of nature but it needs good language. For Pope, diction was quite important. Only content is not enough for poetry, but mastery of language is also required. Nature through wit should be expressed without altering it. You need to have a vocabulary and a practice of using appropriate words inappropriate times. In the heroic couplet, the poets are required to use lines which fit the meter and the rhyming pattern as well.
• The poet should not reveal but conceal the main thought. We can see Pope’s satire doing that, as he never fully expose his ideas but let the readers guess.
As several garbs with the country town and court
Some by old words to fame have made pretense,
Ancients in phrase, mere moderns in their sense;
Such labored nothings, in so strange a style,
• Writers who only copy the archaic language but not the rules of the great roman literature do more disservice to poetry. They pretend to be great writers but are not. They are only ancient in their language but are modern in their ideas, which doesn’t suite the language they use without the decorum. These writers do not have much content, but the only style.
• And some critics only judge Poets on language and not content. They are selective in their criticism for those who are eloquent in language, but for them, content doesn’t matter.
• 3. Meter
• For many bad critics, only metre matters and they judge a poet only by that. For them it only matters that whatever is good to ears. They only admire the voice which the muse(the goddess of poetry) has, although there are several other traits that poetry has.
• Here Pope criticises those critics who only focus on sound and meter. For them only number matters and whether the poet has followed the metrical rules or not.
True ease in writing comes from art, not chance,
As those move easiest who have learned to dance
• For Pope, the writers have to work hard and practice a lot their craft of writing.
• It is not just a chance or genius which makes a great writer but that has to be followed by labour.
•4: Love of extremes (384-393)
Avoid extremes, and shun the fault of such,
Who still are pleased too little or too much.
• There are critics who either love something a lot or hate them completely. This kind of extreme should be avoided and those who do that should called out.
• These critics either write praises for a work or completely destroy the work that they don’t like.
• 5: Liking only “one small sect,”
Some foreign writers, some our own despise,
The ancients only, or the moderns prize.
Thus wit, like faith, by each man is applied
To one small sect, and all are damned beside.
• Some critics are biased for certain sections of writers. They either like the ancients or the moderns. They only use their thought for one section and reject all other sections.
e.g. foreign writers, British author, ancients, or moderns, as opposed to approving of merit wherever it is found.
• 6:Judging authors according to the opinions of others rather than the merit of the work.
Some ne’er advance a judgment of their own,
But catch the spreading notion of the town,
• Some critics judge poets according to how they are seen by the readers. Famous poets are always praised and new ones are criticised a lot. It all depends on public opinion and not on the merit of the poem.
• They judge the poets according to the rank the poets hold. This bias does a lot of disservice to the work of criticism.

• 7. Bias towards one’s own views
Some valuing those of their own side or mind,
Still make themselves the measure of mankind:
Fondly we think we honor merit then,
When we but praise ourselves in other men.
Envy plays a big part here.
• Some only value those works which agree with one’s point of view. Other critics praise those poems which are written by a member of one’s party and other critics appreciate those poems which are written by friends, etc. (452-473).

• “Be thou the first true merit to defend,”
even though we cannot expect modern writers to endure as the ancients don’t let yourself succumb to envy (494-525).
• For Pope, modern works do not last as long as the ancient ones. But the critics should defend works which have merit.
• They should not reject a poet because of being envious to them. Failed poets who become critics may do that all the time.
Be generous: “To err is human, to forgive divine.”
• The critics need to be generous with the poets. It is human to do mistakes and by forgiving small mistakes done by good poets, they can match the divineness of God.
• And the press groaned with licensed blasphemies.
These monsters, critics! with your darts engage,
Here point your thunder, and exhaust your rage!
Yet shun their fault, who, scandalously nice,
Will needs mistake an author into vice; (556-559).
• But the critics should shun those “provoking crimes” such as obscenity and blasphemy. They should use their darts of criticism to target these writers. Those poets who use their poems against God and are obscene should not be spared by the critics. However, they should not “mistake an author into vice”, and only their work should be criticised.
• Though Pope wanted the critics to target blasphemous and obscene writing, he was not against freedom of expression and didn’t want the poets to be made into villains.

Question 29

What are some wisdoms that critics can follow, according to Pope?

Answer 29

• Pope talks about learning about those poets and critics who had a deep knowledge of poetry. A critic should be humble and ready to learn about a thing. It is half the work done if the critics know about his need to learn important things before starting to write criticism.
• A critic should have good knowledge, taste, judgment and objectivity.
• A good critic should have friendship with the poets and not write with a sense of ego or jealousy.
A critic shouldn’t speak if he or she is not sure about what to say about the work.
On the other hand, a critic should say things he or she is confirmed about with self-confidence.
In the end, Pope talks about the history of criticism beginning from Greece and Rome, where critics like Horace, who could talk truth with friendliness, refined thoughts of Homer, copious work of Quintilian and Longinus who was an ardent judge with zealous in his trust.

Question 30

About Preface to Shakespeare?

Answer 30

Samuel Johnson
In his “Preface” which he wrote for an edition of Shakespearean Plays. (1765)
The Plays of William Shakespeare was an 18th-century edition of the dramatic works of William Shakespeare,
It was edited by Samuel Johnson and George Steevens.
Johnson announced about the book in Miscellaneous Observations on Macbeth (1745),
It was published in 1765.
He was comparing Shakespeare to other writers of the present and the past.

Question 31

What does Johnson say about the reputation of the poet?

Answer 31

• Johnson starts by talking about the ancient writers and their virtues as compared to the modern ones. Their excellence is tested by “observation and experience: which is estimated through comparison gradually.

Question 32

What does Johnson think about Shakespeare?

Answer 32

• He praises Shakespeare and believes that he is better than any other modern writer.
• Shakespeare, like the ancient writers, has assumed dignity and his reputation as a poet, the dramatist is timeless is the sense of customs and opinions.
• His characters are real men and women and he shows a mirror to the readers about manners and life.
• Johnson believes that
Nothing can please many, and please long, but just representations of general nature. Particular manners can be known to few, and therefore few only can judge how nearly they are copied.
by which he means that things that will become irrelevant over time, are avoided, such as customs and manners. Instead, writers like Shakespeare are more concerned about the universality and stability of truth.
• His characters are not individuals but ‘commonly a species’ inhabiting the basic traits of all human beings.
• His characters are not heroes but men, who are different from the exaggerated.
• His works express human sentiments in human language, his dialogues are both in verse and prose according to the class of the characters.
• Johnson feels that Shakespeare is one of the ‘original masters’ of the English language

Question 33

What does Johnson think about Nature and the poet?

Answer 33

• For some critics, Shakespeare’s works do not reflect the time and space in which they were written.
• For Johnson, it is the essence of the character that Shakespeare preserves
• His works are natural and not mere accidents, they are not based on the countries and conditions and their distinction, but how the nature of human beings can be universally displayed in characters.
• We can see jealousy in Othello, vengeance in Hamlet, motiveless malignancy in Iago, over-ambition in Macbeth, presented as true human types of all time and spaces.
• He cannot be criticised for mixing tragedy with comedy as he represents how life is, a mixture of all emotions,
• Johnson believes Shakespeare is exceptional because of his closeness to reality. It cannot be denied that his works although mingle tragedy and comedy, it instructs to the public.
• He feels tragi-comedy gives variety, which in turn gives more pleasure.

Question 34

What are faults of Shakespeare according to Johnson?

Answer 34

Faults in Shakespeare
According to Johnson, Shakespeare does have faults.
1. His first defect is that to which may be imputed most of the evil in books or in men. He sacrifices virtue to convenience, and is so much more careful to please than to instruct, that he seems to write without any moral purpose.
He is more careful to please than instruct, and he writes without any moral purpose. He doesn’t make a clear distinction between good and evil, rather than leave actions “to operate by chance”. He feels he doesn’t completely fulfil the writer’s duty “to make the world better”
2. His plots are loose, and he “omits opportunities of instructing and delighting”
3. He had no regard to distinction of time or place, but gives to one age or nation, without scruple, the customs, institutions, and opinions of another, at the expence not only of likelihood, but of possibility.
There is no regard for the distinction of time or place, and characters are not given attributes of a particular era or location.
4. His humour is not censored by him, as it has grossness at times.
5. He doesn’t follow through scenes that evoke pity and fear.
6. He is self-indulgent at times, as his soliloquy and wordplays can become digressive.

Question 35

How does Johnson defend Shakespeare’s lack of Unity?

Answer 35

Johnson’s defence of Shakespeare’s lack of unities.
• For Johnson, Shakespeare cannot be charged with disregards towards the unity of action, as he does follow it. His plots don’t have any complication and denouement
About Unities of Time and place, Johnson believes that they have given more trouble to writers than a pleasure to the auditor. The reason behind these unities is credibility they give to the reality of the works. The audience doesn’t have any “evidence of falsehood, and fiction loses its force when it departs from the resemblance of reality”, Unity of place is related to the unity of time, since the audience doesn’t believe that a character to travel.
• He believes that spectators are always aware of the fictionality of the play that they are watching, so they do not mistake any representation as reality, it is more of a self-delusion. There is no limitation to the delusion as it can take flight. “If we can believe that the battle being enacted on stage is real, why would we be counting the clock or dismission the changing of places as unreal? “The stage is only seen as ‘stage, and that the players are only players”

Question 36

What does Johnson think about Imitation?

Answer 36

Imitation
• Imitation gives pleasure because they bring realities to mind.
• He concludes by saying that “nothing is essential to the fable, but the unity of action,”
• The quality of drama is reduced because of unities of time and place, and hence they are needed to be sacrificed for ‘the nobler beauties of variety and instruction,”.
• “to copy nature and instruct life,” is the greatest thing for a play.
Every man’s performances, to be rightly estimated, must be compared with the state of the age in which he lived, and with his particular opportunities; and though to the reader a book is not worse or better for the circumstances of the authour, yet as there is always a silent reference of human works to human abilities, and as the enquiry, how far a man may extend his designs, or how high he may rate his native force, is of far greater dignity than in what rank we shall place any particular performance, curiosity is always busy to discover the instruments, as well as to survey the workmanship, to know how much is to be ascribed to original powers, and how much to casual and adventitious help.

Question 37

Summary of Preface?

Answer 37

• Shakespeare lacked formal learning and he was mostly a product of his genius.”
• He obtained “an exact knowledge of many modes of life” as well as of the inanimate world, gathered by “contemplating, things as they exist.”
• Shakespeare gives images that he has received directly and not received them from any other person in a distorted form.
• Audiences are responsible for Shakespeare’s reputation, as they praised him with all willingness and overlooked the defects that he had.
• Johnson appeals for experience and observation rather than sticking to classical rules.
• Johnson’s work sets a new precedent, as it begins looking at a play differently than other critics who emphasized on classical rules.
• His discussion on classical rules and individual genius and his assessment of Shakespeare along with the edited work that he presented, makes him quite important in the history of English Criticism.

Question 38

George Puttenhum wrote?

Answer 38

Th Art of English Poesie
Rheotorical analysis of Style
Du Bellay & Ronsard- rhetoric
Justify the use of vernacular language of poetry
3 books
- Justifying poetry as expressing the needs of individual and society
- The second ‘Of proportion “ devoted to the craft of poetry
- Of ornament – rhetoric
- He introduced terms like Ode, Lyric,
- Poet is both maker and imitator

Question 39

Defense of Rhyme is written by?

Answer 39

Defense of Rhyme
Against Capman’s Observation in the Art of Poeisy
Roger Ascham wrote in School Master – English verse harmonizes with classical meter
Daniel wrote the vernacular accentual languages shouldn’t be used with classical meter,

Question 40

“Certayne notes of Instruction,” the first treatise on prosody in English is written by?

Answer 40

George Gascoigne
His ideas arise from induction, not a priori, and seek to account for his own experience in poetry. Gascoigne betrays no belief in the inspiration of either the Platonic or the Christian varieties. [1] Influenced by authors like Castiglione and by his own position, seeking patronage at court, he portrays poetry as a refined accomplishment like skill at arms, horsemanship, or love-making.

Like most pre-modern literary theorists, Gascoigne’s analysis is centered on the use of the conceptual framework and terminology of the rhetorical tradition.

[2] Gascoigne’s rhetorical orientation is evident in his stress on invention and on propriety.

To him a work must be both “good” (appealing in concept or content) and “fine” (that is, well-executed or stylish).
Manual for poets
Each word Situated such that it will receive its natural emphasis or sound
Three types of accents
Gravis – Long
Levis -short
Circumflex – indifferent
Encouraged iambic pentameter
-	Less syllables

Question 41

Battle for Books is written by?

Answer 41

Jonathan Swift

Books fight in the library
The argument between Modern and the Ancient
Manuscripts are damaged, the reader should decide the winner
It is a battle between Classical and Modern authors as well as authors and critics.
It is a parody of Samuel Butler’s Hudibras

Allegory of spider and the bee.
The bee is like the ancients and like authors: it gathers its materials from nature and sings its drone song in the fields.

The spider is like the moderns and like critics: it kills the weak and then spins its web (books of criticism) from the taint of its own body digesting the viscera.

Question 42

Aprah Behn wrote?

Answer 42

Epistle to the Reader

• Preface to the Dutch Lover
• Dramatist are not reformers
• They are most foolish and lewd
• Best characters in tragedy- cant be imitated in reality
• She mocks the use of Unity

Question 43

Henry Fielding on Epic and Drama

Answer 43

Both epic and drama can be called Tragedies and comedies.
Epic doesnt need meter.
A drama can have many things like action, characters similar to Epic
Comic romance is epic in prose.
light and ridiculous, not grave and solemn
Use of burlesque
Burlesque is like a caricature in painting.
To describe the ridiculous which comes from affection
Affectation comes from the vanity of hypocrisy
audience is more surprised when affectation comes from hypocrisy.
Only from affectation misfortunes can become objects of ridicule.

Question 44

Who wrote Thoughts on the Cause of Present Discontent?

Answer 44

Edmund Burke
Thoughts on the Cause of Present discontent
(1771)
Sublime
External world – senses, imagination and judgement
Pleasure of all senses – same in everyone