Elizabeth I character and aims

Question 1

How old was Elizabeth when she came to the throne?

Answer 1

Twenty five - she was much younger than Mary when she came to the throne

Question 2

What was Elizabeth’s education like?

Answer 2

She was well educated and had learned from personal experience (including imprisonment in the Tower as a consequence of Wyatt’s rebellion and a tempestuous relationship with Thomas Seymour)

Question 3

What were Elizabeth’s character strengths and weaknesses?

Answer 3

She was shrewd and proved a good judge of character
Her difficult existence as a Protestant during Mary’s reign, had made her cautious and, even as queen, she was reluctant to take final decisions

Question 4

What did Elizabeth believe about God?

Answer 4

That he had saved her to be his queen and she derived much comfort from her faith
Although a Protestant with a firm belief in royal supremacy, she had conservative views in matter such as church ceremony

Question 5

What were Elizabeth’s short-term aims on coming to the throne?

Answer 5

To consolidate her position
To settle religious issues
To end war with France

Question 6

In what three ways did Elizabeth swiftly consolidate her power?

Answer 6

Mary’s councillors accepted Elizabeth’s succession, many of them personally assured her of their loyalty- Nicholas Heath (Mary’s Lord Chancellor and the Archbishop of York) announced Mary’s death and E was proclaimed queen in November - legally he had no right to do so as Mary’s death should have brought about the immediate dissolution of parliament but it showed the political elite approved of E’s accession. Within a few days 9 of M’s councillors rode to Hatfield to assure E of their loyalty so there would be no attempt of devout Catholics to attempt to deny the succession of E who had never accepted the validity of her father’s marriage to Anne Boleyn
William Cecil was appointed Principle Secretary - E also made some household appointments but didn’t make any further appointments as it made political sense to leave Mary’s councillors guessing about her intentions and speculating about chances of retaining royal favour

Question 7

What was clear about religion when Elizabeth came to the throne?

Answer 7

That the English Church would again be broken from Rome, and that Elizabeth would seek to re-establish royal supremacy over the Church in England but it was less clear what form Elizabeth’s church would take

One of the major priorities of the regime = to decide on the form of religion the country would experience - two key aspects of this 1) legal status of the church and 2) the liturgical books to be used in church services

Question 8

What was the Elizabethan Church Settlement of 1559 and what did it provide?

Answer 8

Provided the framework for E’s church creating a ‘via media’ between Catholicism and Protestantism
Essentially embraced two acts of parliament - Act of Supremacy and Act of Uniformity, issued a set of royal injunctions to enforce the acts and meet liturgical needs, publication of new book of common prayer… 39 articles also introduced in 1563 but not part of original settlement

Question 9

What did the Church Settlement establish and when?

Answer 9

It was enacted in Elizabeth’s first parliament. January - April 1559 and not only established the royal supremacy but also set the way the church was to be organised and the content and conduct of service

Question 10

What three religious policies were put in place in 1559?

Answer 10

Act of Settlement and Act of Uniformity
Act of Supremacy
Royal injunctions

Question 11

What two religious policies were introduced in 1563?

Answer 11

New Book of Common Prayer (compromise between the Edwardian prayer books of 1549 and 1552)
Thirty nine articles (replacing the 43 articles of 1553)

Question 12

What did the Act of Supremacy do?

Answer 12

Repealed the papal supremacy and Marian heresy laws
Reinstated the religious/ Reformation legislation of Henry VIII’s reign and revived the powers of royal visitation of the church - allowing crown to appoint commissioners to amend errors etc
Made the queen ‘supreme governor’ rather than supreme head of the Church of England (ambiguous; a concession to Catholic opinion, reflection of misogynistic attitudes or reflected assumption only God could be head of the Church
Demanded an oath of supremacy from all clergymen and church officials recognising the royal supremacy (enabling Elizabeth to remove Catholic clergy / Marian bishops who felt unable to take the oath)
Therefore restored the legal position of the crown in relation to the Church, giving legislative authority to the crown in matters relating to the church

Question 13

What did the act of uniformity do?

Answer 13

Dealt with worship -demanded that everyone should go to church on Sundays and holydays or pay a fine of 12 pence for non-attendance
Also specified that ornaments of the church and of ministers should be those that were in place during the second year of the reign of Edward (before the 1549 Act of Uniformity) - this would become an issue as many returning Protestant exiles including some new bishops appointed by E assumed the dating was an error and didn’t expect the clause to be enforced particularly in relation to the dress of clergymen - issues as many of the Calvinist clergy saw the ornamants as ‘popish’ so rejected strongly to them
Established the new Book of Common Prayer and specified the use of this single book of common Prayer

Question 14

What was the 1559 prayer book?

Answer 14

A version of that of 1552 to make it more acceptable to traditionally minded worshipers as the second book Cranmer had introduced in 1552 was strongly Protestant
Two modification = it was carefully worded to allow variation in Eucharist belief as both the 1549 and 1552 variations were permitted + The ‘Black Rubric’ included in the 1552 prayer book to explain away the practice of kneeling at the administration of the Eucharist, was omitted

Question 15

What did the royal injunctions do?

Answer 15

Nominated visitors to inspect the Church and gave specific instructions such as:
The removal/suppression of ‘things superstitious’ from Churches - (Protestant in nature)
The purchase of an English bible and a copy of Erasmus’s Paraphrases by every parish church (as in 1547)
The celebration of the Eucharist as a simple Communion table (not an alter) = direction of reform
The suppression of Catholic practices (e.g. pilgrimages and the use of candles)
The requirement that any prospective wife of a clergyman had to produce a certificate, signed by two JPs to indicate her fitness to the role
Visitors nominated by Cecil to enforce them = strongly Protestant

Question 16

What were the 39 articles?

Answer 16

Drawn up by the Church in convocation in 1563 (and confirmed by parliament in 1571) they sought to define the doctrine of the Church of England

Question 17

What were the 39 articles based on so what did they support/say?

Answer 17

Based on Cranmer’s earlier articles, they broadly supported reformed doctrine e.g. they denied teachings concerning transubstantiation and affirmed that Scripture was the final authority on salvation
They stated that both bread and wine should be served in all Communion service and that ministers could marry

Question 18

What was the significance of the settlement?

Answer 18

It was a compromise - not clear whether it was intended as an end itself or as a pre-cursor for further reform - some argue E saw it as final but some argue otherwise

Question 19

What two extremes was Elizabeth placed under the pressure of during the reform?

Answer 19

A ‘Puritan Choir’ of radical clergymen and MPs who may have forced her to accept a more Protestant prayer book that she had really wanted
Catholic bishops and conservative peers in the House of Lords, who having accepted royal supremacy strongly opposed the uniformity bill (only passed in the Lords by 3 votes) , believing the settlement to be too Protestant

Question 20

What did the Act of Supremacy give Elizabeth the opportunity to do?

Answer 20

Remove Catholic clergy that refused the oath - apart from Bishop Kitchen and the Bishop of Sodor and Man all Catholic bishops refused so this combined with existing vacancies enabled E to appoint 15 bishops (Including Thomas Parker ABoC and Richard Cox)

Question 21

When the oath from the act of supremacy was issued to the lower clergy what was the response?

Answer 21

Only 4% refused to take it (about 200) in the period Nov 1559 - Nov 1564

Question 22

When was the first visitation following the Act of Supremacy and what was created?

Answer 22

Began at the end of June 1559 to administer the Oath of Supremacy and to deliver the new Royal Injunctions on Religion - for this a commission of clergy and laymen was created (The Court of High Commission) - it was used to locate and prosecute people with Catholic sympathies

Question 23

What was the controversial part of the act of uniformity?

Answer 23

The new Book of Common Prayer - based on the Edwardian books of 1549 and 1552 but with significant differences especially the wording to be used during a communion service

Question 24

In what way was the new book a compromise?

Answer 24

It contained the possibility of pleasing Catholics and Lutherans who believed in the spiritual presence of Christ at communion and the Zwinglians who regarded communion as merely a way to remember the last supper

Question 25

What else did the Act of Uniformity allow?

Answer 25

Crosses and candlesticks to be placed on the communion table and lay down regulations for the type of clothes worn by clergymen (led to the Vestiarian Controversy of 1556)

Question 26

What were the royal injunctions focused on?

Answer 26

Drawn up by Cecil they focused on the day to day organisation of the church not contained in the Act of Uniformity
Aim was to ensure a uniformity of religious practice e.g. preaching was to be licensed by a bishop and preachers had to preach once a month

Question 27

Which aspects of the Royal Injunctions pleased protestants and what parts disappointed them

Answer 27

The injunction to close shrines and outlaw pilgrimages pleased them
Disappointed by the use of wafer as a host at communion, like at Mass, instead of bread as laid down in the 1552 book of common prayer
Also disappointed by the removal of the Black Rubric of the 1552 book which forbade kneeling at communion (kneeling to protestants symbolised the ‘real’ presence of Christ at communion
Radical protestants disappointed by injunctions concerning wearing of vestments and injunction preventing further destruction of altars

Question 28

Despite more extreme protestants possible being disappointed by some injunctions what is it possible the laws represented?

Answer 28

Elizabeth’s own religious views (however clerical marriage was something Elizabeth had always disliked)

Question 29

What did the wording of some of the 39 articles appear to go against and what were they based on?

Answer 29

The views of predestination held by Calvinists and contained words and phrases that could be acceptable to both Lutherans and Zwinglians
They also denied the ‘real presence of Christ in the communion service which was central to Catholic religious beliefs - it was instead similar to the Lutheran belief of consubstantiation
Possibly based on the 42 articles from the reign of Edward

Question 30

What was the Act of Exchange and when was it passed?

Answer 30

Passed in 1559 - it allowed Elizabeth the right to take over property once held by bishops and also prevented bishops from making money from renting out land for more than 21 years, except to Elizabeth herself

Question 31

What was a result of the Act of Exchange?

Answer 31

Took considerable wealth away from the church
Helped Elizabeth and her government to put pressure on bishops by using parts of the act against them (ensured loyalty to E’s religious wishes)

Question 32

Who opposed the Act of Exchange and what was it initially for?

Answer 32

Passed with protests from the newly appointed Protestant bishops
Initially only to deprive Marian bishops of their wealth (E could take land and buildings from the church and force the bishops to pay rent = increased revenue)

Question 33

How else did Elizabeth use her settlement to provide wealth for the church?

Answer 33

Like Henry VIII she took under royal control the church taxes of First Fruits and Tenths (Mary had returned them in her reign) - this 1559 act allowed E the revenue without increasing taxes on the laity

Question 34

How did Elizabeth show the development of her political skills as a result of the developments (Seymour and Wyatts)?

Answer 34

Her quick dismissal of the executed Thomas Seymour as a man of much wit but little judgement showed that she had learnt from the temporary disgrace of their relationship
Her clear headedness under interrogation and marking a letter to her half-sister Queen Mary with diagonal lines so that it couldn’t be doctored was remarkable for someone only 20

Question 35

How is it clear that E believed she was entitled to rule the kingdom directly?

Answer 35

From the start of her reign - clear she was in charge - the December 1558, the Spanish ambassador noted that E was more feared than her sister had been and gave orders as absolutely as her father did - she even told Parliament in 1559 that she hoped to rule like her father

Question 36

Was Elizabeth involved in government?

Answer 36

Had no desire to involve herself in the details of government like her grandfather Henry VII but she did take an informed interest in the decision-making process and she was determined to preserve the prerogative powers of the Crown which meant she insisted on taking the most important decisions

Question 37

What happened when Mary died on 17th November 1558?

Answer 37

Within a few hours Sir William Cecil had ridden the 16 miles north to Hatfield to tell princess E that the accession had arrived

Question 38

What were Mary’s councillors aware of and did this affect the succession?

Answer 38

That E did not share their religious views and therefore that many of their political careers were over
But they made no attempt to interfere with the lawful succession as defined by Henry VIII and Mary had recognised E as her successor and her husband Philip had signified his recognition of E’s right of succession when he sent an envoy to see E a month before Mary’s death

Question 39

Why was it a difficult succession in other respects?

Answer 39

England had suffered a series of bad harvests so food was scarce and expensive
The country had suffered from the ravages of a flu epidemic which brought the highest rate of mortality since the black death
Political and religious situations were also delicate
England had fought a disastrous war against France losing Calais
The Queen’s marriage had been subject of endless speculation
It was clear there would be changes to the Catholic Faith as re-established by Mary

Question 40

In what three other ways did Elizabeth consolidate her power

Answer 40

Elizabeth presented herself to the people from the Tower of London - show herself to her new subjects and to benefit from pageants which were organised on her behalf by the City of London
Her coronation took place in January (within two months)
She gained some international confirmation- The Spanish ambassador (the Count of Feria) had already visited Elizabeth several days before Mary’s death and after her accession tried to negotiate a marriage alliance between E and Philip II- nothing came of it but it showed Philip didn’t want to disrupt the smoothness of E’s succession

Question 41

What were the three main possibilities of the nature of the church when E came to the throne?

Answer 41

A) Essentially an ‘Anglo-Catholic’ church whose doctrines and practices remained essentially Catholic even though it had rejected papal supremacy
B) An apparently moderate Protestant Church similar to that implied by the Act of Uniformity pf 1549
C) A more radically evangelical Church as implied by the Act of Uniformity of 1552

Question 42

What were the royal injunctions?

Answer 42

A set of instructions about the conduct of church services and government of the Church issued in the queen’s name as supreme governor
On three previous occasions 1536, 1538 and 1547 royal injunctions had been used by the crown as a mechanism for imposing Its will in relation to church practices

Question 43

What was the foreign situation when Elizabeth came to the throne and what did E want?

Answer 43

England was in conflict with France - war had gone badly for England and weakened finances
E wanted to remove England for this war and luckily the financial state of Spain and France meant neither Philip II or Henry II of France wanted to continue to fight

Question 44

What peace treaty was agreed with France to end the war and when?

Answer 44

April 1559 at Cateau-Cambresis in which it was agreed France would retain Calais for eight years after which time Calais would be restored to English control provided England had kept the peace in the meantime
If France failed to return Calais, they agreed to pay 500,000 crowns to England (£125,000)

Question 45

Why did further problems emerge after the death of Henry II of France in June 1559 following an accident in a jousting match?

Answer 45

Henry II was succeeded by his son Francis II, who was married to Mary QoS (E’s cousin and the main Catholic claimant to the throne)
Francis’s accession also brought the strongly Catholic Guise faction to power in France

Question 46

What did the Guises sought to do and what was the outcome?

Answer 46

Again use Scotland as an instrument of French policy
French troops were sent to garrison major Scottish fortresses - alarmed John Knox (radical Calvinist + leader of the Scottish reformation) and his political allies, the Lords of the Congregation who were seeking power in Edinburgh
This led to conflict with the Lords of the Congregation requesting assistance from their fellow Protestants south of the border

Question 47

Why was E cautious about interfering in Scotland?

Answer 47

Worried about getting involved in the domestic affairs of another nation in which subjects were rebelling against another sovereign authority
She also loathed Knox who had written against female rule which he saw as repugnant to nature

Question 48

Who supported intervention in Scotland and why?

Answer 48

Cecil - he sympathised with the religious predicament of Scottish protestants and knew that England would be more secure without a French force north of the border
He also sought the removal of Mary QoS which would weaken her influence as a potential Catholic claimant to the English throne and wanted to incorporate Scotland within a wider ‘imperial British state, which he considered necessary for the survival of Protestant England

Question 49

Was Cecil’s desire to intervene in Scotland supported?

Answer 49

It was a minority position on the council, in which he was even opposed by his normal ally and brother-in-law Sir Nicholas Bacon

Question 50

How did Cecil persuade E to intervene in Scotland?

Answer 50

By playing on her insecurity and pointing to the actions of Francis and Mary in using the English royal coat of arms on their own heraldic device
He even suggested his own resignation if E failed to support him - demonstrating how FP was influenced by both religion and key individuals

Question 51

What was intervention like initially and what changed?

Answer 51

Initially limited to money and armaments but towards the end of December 1559 the navy was sent to the Firth of Forth to stop French reinforcements from landing
The Lords of Congregation were offered conditional support at the Treaty of Berwick in Feb 1560 and in March 1560 an army was sent North

Question 52

What happened in March 1560 when an army was sent north?

Answer 52

The army and navy blockaded Leith just outside Edinburgh where most of the French force was situated, from land and sea
The siege failed but other circumstances forced a French withdrawal - the French fleet was severely damaged by storm and the regent Mary of Guise died - Cecil was therefore able to secure favourable terms I the Treaty of Edinburgh in July (upholds the power of the Lord of the Congregation )

Question 53

What happened following the events of the intervention in Scotland?

Answer 53

The Lords of the Congregation were accepted as a provisional conciliar government and with the death of Francis II in December, the Guises fell from power, Mary Stuart’s influence on French Policy came to an end and she had to return to Scotland where she was forced to accept the political and religious power of her enemies

Question 54

Was the intervention in Scotland a success?

Answer 54

Cecil had triumphed - the interests of the Scottish Protestants had been protected and the political influence of Mary had been significantly reduced
But E was aware that success had been achieved through good fortune (the death of Francis) and she would proceed more cautiously in the future

Question 55

What happened in France in March 1562 and what did Robert Dudley (later earl of Leicester) encourage E to do?

Answer 55

Conflict broke out between Catholics and Protestants - he encouraged E to put military pressure on the French crown when it was in a relatively weak state as to ensure the return of Calais

Question 56

What did E do in France as a result of Robert Dudley’s advice?

Answer 56

Promised the Huguenot leader, the Prince of Conde, 6000 men and a loan of £30,000 with control of the port of Le Havre as security

Question 57

What was the outcome of the intervention in France?

Answer 57

Unfortunately for E and Dudley, the luck from Scotland now deserted them as the Huguenot army was defeated and Conde was captured - on the Catholic side the Duke of Guise was assassinated
With both sides leaderless, the French factions agreed to accept peace terms and united to drive the English out of Le Havre
England therefore forced to seek an unfavourable peace settlement at the subsequent Treaty of Troyes in 1564

Question 58

What were the outcomes of the failure in France?

Answer 58

E had not long lost the protection against loss secured at Cateau-Cambresis, she had lost Calais permanently (although it was expensive to maintain and it was too tempting to use it as a starting point of invasion to perhaps advantageous in the long-run), which was a significant blow to E’s prestige
After this E became much more cautious about supporting Protestant causes on the European continent - possibly too cautious in the case of her subsequent attitude to the Netherlands

Question 59

What is a Huguenot?

Answer 59

Term used in the 16th and 17th century to denote French Protestants

Question 60

What is the estimate for how many parish clergymen were deprived of their livings as a result of a refusal to take the oath of supremacy and is it accurate?

Answer 60

One suggests 2000 (about 1/4) almost certainly an overestimate but impossible to tell because of the disappearance of most of the relevant records
The visitors empowered to administer the oath may well have been reluctant to deprive too many clergy because of the difficulty replacing them
The Act Book of Visitors in the Province in York seems to indicate that visitors were only really interested in the more important members of the clergy e.g. bishops, deans and weren’t too bothered about the ordinary parish clergy