elevation of prostate specific antigen

Question 1

what symptoms correlate with tumorigenesis

Answer 1

• unexplained weight loss
• fatigue
• fever
• systemic signs and symptoms

Question 2

what could cause elevated prostate specific antigen

Answer 2

benign prostatic hyperplasia

Question 3

what features would lead to suspicion of familial cancer

Answer 3

• early age of onset
• present in first-degree relatives
• cancer in successive generations
• multiple cancers in the same patient

Question 4

what cytological features are present in cancer

Answer 4

• increased nuclear size
• variation in nuclear shape
• decreased cell cohesion
• hyperchromatic nuclei

Question 5

what histological features are present in cancer

Answer 5

• mitotic features
• disorganization of tissue
• presence of lymphatic infiltrate
• highly undifferentiated

Question 6

how does cancer stage and grade impact the prognosis

Answer 6

gives an idea as to how aggressive cancer is, its capacity to invade and metastasize

Question 7

what 3 locations are prostate cancer likely to metastasize to

Answer 7

• lymph nodes
• bone
• viscera

Question 8

what is penetrance and what is its importance with familial cancer

Answer 8

describes the proportion of individuals with a given genotype that will likely go on to display the phenotype commonly associated with that genotypes

• most familial cancers are not 100% penetrative
• other factors such as epigenetics, environment play a factor
  e. g. not all individuals with BRAC2 mutation will get BRC2 associated cancers (phenotype)

Question 9

what are some advantages of undertaking genetic testing at a young age

Answer 9

ability to undergo targeted screening e.g. frequent mammography
ability to undergo prophylactic surgery e.g. mastectomy

Question 10

what is cancer calchexia

Answer 10

refers to muscle wasting and anorexia
is due to the breakdown of skeletal muscle and abnormalities in fat and carbohydrate metabolism (despite adequate intake)

Question 11

what factors contribute to calchexia in cancer

Answer 11

• alterations in metabolism e.g. increased protein metabolism
• alteration in physiology e.g. maldigestion / malabsorption
• insufficient dietary intake e.g. appetite suppression
• physical impairment of swallowing e.g. mass of tumour