Eisenhower Black Americans Flashcards
What was the position of Black Americans in the North?
De facto segregation remained the norm despite the limited efforts of Truman administrations . Organization such as National Urban League continued to campaign for change but without creating big spotlight cases such as bus boycott and the little rock nine crises that were taking place in the south.
The Nul pushed tirelessly for integration in the racist trade unions and core, which ha grown to 52 national chapters by the end of Eisenhower’s administration, was beginning to challenge de facto segregation in Chicago schools and elsewhere, taking on the powerful Democratic Mayor of Chicago, Richard Daley.
In the house of representatives Adam Clayton Powell and William Dawson were joined by Charles Diggs representing Michigan and Robert Nix Sr representing Pennsylvania but the senate remained entirely white.
What were the social problems being faced by the black Americans in the North?
The problems of inner city areas remained the same as Truman. White flight to the suburbs left the inner city ethically homogenous and often dividing lines between whites and the black were clearly visible such as the 8 mile road in Detroit.
Black Americans who lacked access to cars were shopping from local stores where prices were higher.
Rents were increased by landlords aware of the fact that the real estate agents could prevent wealthier African-Americans from moving out.
Over all of this there was a threat of police violence and intimidation.
Many people had moved to the north due to job opportunities however, this was not to be true as the jobs many black Americans had were low payed and non unionized service jobs.
The growth of Nation of Islam?
1959 a tv show aired called the hate that hate produced which covered the nation of Islam and Malcolm X was the main face of this tv show.
The effect of this programme was to terrify white viewers. Most powerfully a national audience was introduced to Malcolm X whose looks and militaristic character gained him popularity amongst the society.
It was easy for the media who were hungry for stories to cast Malcolm X as the antithesis of MLK Jr and as the spokesman for the Black Americans in North.
Analytical Comment on the status of Black Americans in North
Situation in the South
A combination of court victories for the NAACP against Jim crow laws, the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896 and the emergence of popular figure heads such as King was a vital part for the Black Americans to gain Momentum.
But the most important was the role of media as it provided the whole nation regards to the harsh treatment of Black American’s . Half of the American population had a tv at home.
This enabled people to view the realities of segregation, particularly the pivotal case of Brown v. Board of education.
Emergence of civil rights through Education
Schools in the south were de jure segregated by Jim Crow Laws and the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson separated but equal ruiling which allowed states to provide separate facilities for black and white people, such as schools and water fountains provided they were equal quality but that wasn’t the case as there was a clear sense of inequality in the society especially in the southern part of America.
Eisenhower was aware of the progress of the court case that has become known as Brown v. Board pf Education of Topeka Kansas and in early 1953 brown and other 5 cases had reached the supreme court ( Morgan v. Virginia 1946(travelling case), 1944 Smith v. Allwright(voting case), Shelley v. Kramer 1948(housing case), 1950 Henderson v. US(transport case), McLaurin v. Oklahoma state 1950(education case) and Sweatt v. Painter 1950(education case). This showed had the Naacp had gained this momentum since Truman inorder to develop the educational resources for the Black society which would enable them to grow in the society and also if schools aren’t segregated students could be taught to not be prejudice to each other anymore.
Here the NAACP’s legal team headed by Thurgood Marshall presented compelling legal and psychological evidence that separate school facilities were inherently unequal.
On 17th May 1954 Chief Justice Earl Warren announced that the court had unanimously ruled in favor of Brown.
Eisenhower’s relationship with Earl Warren
Warren made progressive decisions at supreme court which sometimes clashed with Eisenhower’s conservative views.
Eisenhower expected Warren to be a moderate conservative.
Had significant disagreements.
Warrens tenure on the supreme court was marked by several landmark decisions that advanced civil rights which were not always in line with Eisenhower’s expectations.
Eisenhower stated ‘the biggest damned-fool mistake I ever made’
The victory of the case created problems for Eisenhower
The opposition created by this case
Opponents of desegregation began to retaliate. White citizens council were formed and by 1956 boasted 250,000 members.
The KKK was revitalized and began to grow in membership and in brutality.
More significantly for Eisenhower was the signing of the southern manifesto A document drawn up and signed by 101 Dixiecrat congressmen which threatened to use ‘all lawful means’ to oppose Supreme Court’s decision on the grounds of it infringing state rights.
Southern Manifesto
It showed clear resistance to civil rights by the congress as the whole panel was mainly democrat and it also included Dixiecrat’s who opposed any move towards desegregation.
It was a congressional response to the ruling of Brown v. Board which showed the conflicted views on civil rights between the federal government and state government.
The southern manifesto used to ruling of Plessy vs Ferguson (1896) to defy there argument as the ‘separate but equal’ doctrine was violating the 14th amendment according to them as no person was denied with the facilities. This showed how the state government argued that the judiciary has overpowered.
They believe that the court itself was acting illegally which is ironic as the court exists in order to make sure that the two branches of federal government don’t overpower.
They also believed that the verdict of the case was so due to personal views of earl warren accusing the court’s members being corrupt.
Emmett Till case what was it an example and why is it significant when understanding civil rights?
Murdered on 28th August 1955, trial of murders September 1955.
All white Jury ruled that the murderers are not guilty of the crime even though there was clear evidence regards to the murder of Till. It showed institutional racism existing in the American society and showed how judiciary policies aren’t being implemented in the South.
This showed how the idea of desegregation was just a simpler explanation and hard to do so in reality.
1956 the university of Alabama expelled its first black student Autherine Lucy despite the NAACP winning the case of Lucy v. Adams in 1955 to secure her place.
Till’s mother asked David Jackson who worked for the jet magazine as a photographer.
Jet magazine based in California was a publican that was primarily produced and distributed to the African American community that had been trying to educated the rest of the country about the horror of segregation and racial violence in American South.
The photo was taken by Jackson and it juxtaposed with the photo of Till as a boy who wanted to please everyone which made it impossible for anyone to be silent who saw it. This was a good media tactic as they brought the attention of the crises face by the Black Americans across the nation.
Little Rock nine 1957
1955 Supreme Court had been forced to follow up the original brown decision with a second, known as Brown 2 when the NAACP sought to establish a timescale for desegregation of schools.The court’s ruling that desegregation should occur ‘ with all deliberate speed’ left room for the southern state officials to implement delaying tactics.
This was most obvious Virginia where Senator Harry Byrd Urged committed segregationists to adopt a strategy of ‘massive resistance’ including closing down schools completely.
Desegregation of schools began in Tennessee Governor Frank Clement vetoed a bill introduced in the state legislature to preserve integration and in September 1956 used the national guard to protect the first Black students to enter Clinton High school.
September 1957 central High school in little rock, the capital of Arkansas, was due to accept 9 black students.
Elizabeth Eckford did not get the notification to arrive with the rest of the group.
After the verdict of Brown v. Board in 1954 Faubus, state government of Arkansas became a fierce opponent of school integration. 1958, Faubus closed every school in little Rock Nine a process to stop racial integration.
He had previously allowed desegregation of interstate bus travels but encouraged opposition to the NAACP organised entry of the ‘little rock nine’ to reinforce his segregationists credentials of voters.
Political side of the crises
Orval Faubus had sent 250 state troops to surround the school when the little rock nine were due to start : he said this was to keep peace avoiding black students from entering.
24th September Eisenhower sent 1000 federal troops(101st Airborne) to ensure black students could attend the school without being attacked.
He had previously allowed desegregation of interstate bus travels but encouraged opposition to the NAACP organised entry of the ‘little rock nine’ to reinforce his segregationists credentials of voters.
Faubus had warned that a potential riot can occur when the little rock gets integrated which served to bring protesters out to block the black students leading to controversial scenes and Faubus mobilized the national guard to turn students away.
Faubus the following year closed all schools in little Rock claiming the city to assert it’s rights against federal decision. This showed political leaders such as Faubus himself would do anything in there power to stop any sort advancement in the idea of desegregation or even stop it.
This period became as ‘The lost year’ as no African Americans could afford the private schools which were opened’
1958 - Faubus was classed as one of the most admired American Gallup poll.
Harry Ashmore?
He won a 1958 Pulitzer Prize for his coverage of the crises maintained that Faubus had manufactured this crises, for political advantage and his maneuverings had made him a hero segregationists. However, Eisenhower had reinforced the idea of president support supreme court decisions.
Montgomery Bus Boycott
After the arrest of Rosa Parks, a Naacp activists in Montgomery Alabama for sitting in the white section of a city bus, a bus boycott was organized.
It was based on much shorter but successful boycott in Baton Rouge Louisiana in 1953. Martin Luther King Jr. asked to lead the boycott and succeeded prolonging it pass the original plan of a single day , to 381 days where Black Americans either walked or shared Taxis.
This costed the bus company 80% of their costs per day.
Organisations that were important during the bus boycott?
Naacp as they managed to bring another case to the supreme court Browder v. Gayle on December 1956 the supreme court ruled that bus segregation is unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment.
The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) were able to co ordinate the campaign effectively and it’s president Martin Luther King Jr. became a prominent civil right leader. Bus Boycott demonstrated the potential for non violent mass protest to successfully challenge racial segregation.
The women’s political council (WPC) a group of black professionals founded in 1946 , had already turned their attention to Jim crow practices on Montgomery Bus Boycott.
MIA held meetings with church groups and other organization to plan car sharing. The first car pools began on 12th December and grew to involve with over 300 cars.
