egzaminas Flashcards
Predicator
a word that carries more meaning than others and is isolated from their original sentences. Svarbiausias predicate sakinyje, tampa predicator
A predicate
any word (or a sequence of words) which in a given sense can function as a predicator of a sentence. Bet kada gali būti predicator. Kituose skainiuose. Everything that is not a referring expression.
The degree of a predicate –
a number indicating the number of arguments it is normally understood to have in simple sentences.
A generic sentence
is a sentence in which some statement is made about a whole unrestricted class of individuals as opposed to any particular individual.
Universe of discourse
particular world that the speaker assumes he is talking about in an utterance.
A DEICTIC word
one which takes some element of its meaning from the context or situation (i.e. the speaker, the addressee, the time and the place) of the utterance in which it is used.
A DEICTIC word
one which takes some element of its meaning from the context or situation (i.e. the speaker, the addressee, the time and the place) of the utterance in which it is used.
Linguistic expressions that typically are deictic expressions:
demonstratives first and second person pronouns tense markers adverbs of time and space some motion verbs ‘psychological shifting’ of the speakers point of view. Come, go, bring, here, now. Grammatical devices called tenses for indicating past, present, and future time.
Reported speech deictic words
Can be translated into non-deictic terms in order to preserve the original reference.
DEFINITENESS
a feature of a noun phrase selected by a speaker to convey his assumption that the hearer will be able to identify the referent of the noun phrase, usually because it is the only thing of its kind in the context of the utterance, or because it is unique in the universe of discourse.
The context
is a small subpart of the universe of discourse which is shared by the speaker and the hearer and includes the facts about topic and the facts about situation.
Definite noun phrases:
proper names, personal pronouns , phrases with definite determiner.
The REFERENT of a referring expression
is the thing picked out by the use of that expression on a particular occasion of utterance.
The EXTENSION of a predicate
the complete set of all things which could potentially (i.e. in any possible utterance) be the referent of a referring expression whose head constituent is that predicate.
A PROTOTYPE of a predicate
is a typical member of its extension.
Ostensive definition
specifiesthe meaning of an expression by pointing to examples of things to which the expression applies(e.g., green is the color of grass, limes, lily pads, and emeralds).
Denotation
means the literal definition of a word. To give an example, the denotation for blue isthe colour blue.
The SENSE of an expression
is its indispensable hard core of meaning.
A SYNTHETIC sentence
is one which is NOT analytic, but may be either true or false, depending on the way the world is.
A NECESSARY CONDITION on the sense of a predicate
is a condition (or criterion) which a thing MUST meet in order to qualify as being correctly described by that predicate.
A SUFFICIENT SET OF CONDITIONS on the sense of a predicate
is a set of conditions (or criteria) which, if they are met by a thing, are enough in themselves to GUARANTEE that the predicate correctly describes that thing.
The STEREOTYPE of a predicate
is a list of the TYPICAL characteristics or features of things to which the predicate may be applied.
Entailment:
A proposition x entails a proposition y if the truth of y follows necessarily from the truth of x.
Entailment entails cumulatively. Thus, if x entails Y and Y entails Z, the X entails Z.
the basic rule of sense inclusion
Given two sentences A and B,identical in every way except that A contains a word X where B contains a different word Y, and X is a hyponym of Y, then sentence A entails sentence B.
intension
any property or quality or state of affairs connoted by a word
symmetrical hyponymy
x is a kind of y and y is a kind of x
entailment
principle that under certain conditions the truth of one statement ensures the truth of a second statement.
Synonymy
– is the relationship between two predicates that have the same sense.
Paraphrase of the sentence.
A sentence which expresses the same proposition as another sentence
Hyponymy
is a sense relation between predicates (or sometimes longer phrases) such that the meaning of one predicate (or phrase) is included in the meaning of the other.
BINARY ANTONYMS
are predicates which come in pairs and between them exhaust all the relevant possibilities. If the one predicate is applicable, then the other cannot be, and vice versa.
CONVERSE
describes relationships between two things (or people) and some other predicate. it has the same relationship but the things mentioned in the opposite order.
Parent and child are converses, because X is the parent of Y (one order) describes the same situation (relationship) as Y is the child of X (opposite order).
CONVERSE
describes relationships between two things (or people) and some other predicate the same relationship but the things mentioned in the opposite order.
Parent and child are converses, because X is the parent of Y (one order) describes the same situation (relationship) as Y is the child of X (opposite order).
semantic systems are sometimes known as ‘semantic fields’.
, for example, male and female between them constitute the English sex system, true and false are the two members of the truth system etc. Other such systems (or fields) can have three, or four, or any number of members, depending upon the way in which the system is organized.
GRADABLE antonyms
are at opposite ends of a continuous scale of values (a scale which typically varies according to the context of use).
Hot and cold are gradable antonyms.
Between hot and cold is a continuous scale of values, which may be given
HOMONYMY
The relationship between words that are homonyms—words that have different meanings but are pronounced the same (homophone) or spelled the same (homograph) or both.
Mug (drinking vessel vs gullible person) would be a clear case of homonymy. Bank (financial institution vs the side of a river or stream) is another clear case of homonymy.
A case of POLYSEMY
is one where a word has several very closely related senses.
REFERENTIALLY VERSATILE is
if it can be used to refer to a wide range of different things or persons
logical formula for equative sentence is
Clak Kent is Superman
ck = s
connectives and logical formula
&
(Caesar came to Gaul) (Caesar saw Gaul) (Caesar conquered Gaul)
((cCOMEg)&(cSEEg)&(cCONQUERg))
This rule of inference, called ‘Commutativity of Conjunction
Commutativity of conjunction:
p & q (premiss)
q & p (conclusion)
a x b = b x a
rule of inference is the rule of ‘Commutativity of Disjunction’
p V q (premiss)
q V p (conclusion)
v stands for or
negation
Alice didn’t sleep
~ a SLEEP
Conditional clauses
If Adam trusts Eve, he’s stupid
a TRUST e –> 1 a STUPID
rule of inference for condition
p –> q (premisses)
p
——–
q (conclusion)
p —> q (premiss)
~ q
——-
~ p (conclusion
if and only if
(a MARRY b) =_ (b MARRY a)
modus ponens
a rule stating that if a proposition P entails a proposition Q, and P is true, then Q is true.
Put in the form of a diagram, Modus Ponens looks like this:
P –> Q
P
———
Q
Logical notation
unambiguously represents the essentials of propositions
simple proposition
has just one predicator
