Egypt: Society in New Kingdom Egypt to the death of Amenhotep III Flashcards
THE GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT
Geographical setting, natural features and resources of New Kingdom Egypt and its neighbours
GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
Most prominent feature→ Nile River (flows north from central Africa to Egypt and then out to Med sea)
Mediterranean formed Egypt’s northern border while Red Sea was Eastern boundary
West dessert formed natural barrier between Egypt and Libya
During floods, navigation became difficult due to rapids formed as river forced its way through region
3 seasons:
Inundation: Akhet, Emergence: Peret, Ploughing: Shemw
Duality: East and West banks, order in religion, E.g. Osiris vs Seth. Black land vs Red land
NATURAL FEATURES
“Egypt is the gift of the Nile.” HERODOTUS (Greek historian)
There would be no Egyptian civilization without river
2 distinct geographical areas:
Lower Egypt: North. Rich lands of Nile Delta and Old Kingdom capital of Memphis
Upper Egypt: South of memphis to southern border at Aswan. Included New kingdom capital thebes, and the Valley of the Kings
Nile was important for irrigation for crop growing, transport, water for drinking/bathing, animal husbandry, mud for brickmaking, papyrus, fishing and fowling
Fertile, surrounded by lifeless desert and chaotic foreign lands
Cataracts (natural barriers of Nile) Mediterranean Sea to the North
RESOURCES
From Egypt
Wide variety of natural resources; minerals, ores, stone, rock and food
Within borders→ rich deposits of gold (mined from earliest times)
Nile→ Agriculture, water source, transport, fishing and fowling
Food→ Ducks, Cattle, hares, Fish, Oils, vegetables grown, Honey, grains produced, Figs, fruits, grapes (wine)
Papyrus
From neighbours
Oases to the west→ provided valuable raw materials
Timber from cedar forests of Byblos (modern Lebanon)
Crete and Aegean provided pottery, jewellery and ignite of copper
Blue semi precious lapis lazuli stone from Afghanistan
Luxury goods such as panther skin, ostrich feathers came from region of Nubia (south of Egypt) used for priests
Spices, Ivory, Ebony
Relief from Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple, showing trade expedition to Punt. “Behold the load is very heavy…ebony and pure Ivory, apes, skin of southern Panther…the like was never brought before any King
Hymn to Hapi
Hapi reveals how Egyptians relied on the Nile
Hapi is the God of the Nile and sacrifices were made to him as Egyptians knew what would happen when he didn’t come
“People’s lives are changed by your coming”
“None can live without you.
Significant sites: Thebes, Valley of the Kings, Malkata
THEBES
East bank of the Nile where the sun rose each day was for the living (City was gods first creation)
Here was Royal palaces, temples of Gods and villages of people
West Bank, place of setting sun was for the dead
For most of NK, Thebes (Waset) was the most important centre
Duality of east and west banks→ Ma’at
East Bank
East bank of the Nile at Thebes→ located 2 great temples of Amun (Luxor and Karnak)
West Bank
Site of the pharaohs mortuary temples (especially built to maintain cult of dead pharaoh in his afterlife)
Pharaohs tombs were close in VOK
Short distance was Valley of Queens
Short distance was village of Dier el- Medina (housed the workers who constructed nearby pharaohs tombs)
VALLEY OF THE KINGS
NK Royal necropolis (cemetery) Contained rock- cut tombs of 62 pharaohs of NK
Thutmose I is thought to have been the first pharaoh to construct a tomb for himself in VOTK
Consists of two main sections: Eastern and Western valley
Valley offered seclusion and degree of protection for funerary monuments of a dynasty devoted to Amun “the hidden one”
Symbolic appeal→ view across Nile from Thebes resembled hieroglyph Akhet meaning “horizon” (place of rising sun→ gave location a symbolic association with rebirth and renewal.)
Each morning the sun would rise over eastern cliffs (12 hours of wake and order to the waking world, in evening, Ra set towards cliffs in west)
MALKATA
Amenhotep III built a huge palace complex on West Bank of Thebes (for setting of King’s Sed-renewal festival)
Excavation revealed artefacts, rooms with decorated plaster floors, walls and ceilings
Many feature naturalistic scenes of plants and animals, decorative spirals
West of Thebes usually reserved for cemeteries
Roles and images of the pharaoh: concept of maat
ROLES AND IMAGES OF PHAROAH
Exercised absolute power over his subjects→ had both earthly and divine roles as provider and protector of his people
People revered him as King and representative of gods
Power came responsibility→ at all times; main role was to uphold maat
Chief priest of all religious cults→ made daily offerings to the gods in temples; rituals often delegated to high priests of gods and their attendants
Pharaoh was chief judge and supreme commander of the army
Authority of King shown by regalia or kingly dress
Could be recognised by headdress, symbols of authority he carried and other accoutrements (e.g. False beard, kilt, tail and weapons)
Number of representations of King became standard features of pharaonic iconography (way King was depicted in reliefs and statues)
Expansion of empire in period saw development of Royal military images known as “warrior Pharaoh” iconography
Typically show Pharoah hitting enemy with mace or attacking enemies in war chariots
Military image of Pharaoh was Sphinx (seated pose or trampling enemies)
MAAT
According to creation myth→ world was in state of continual tension between order and chaos.
Primary duty of pharaoh was to maintain maat (harmony of universe and protect Egypt from forces of chaos)
Concept of maat embodied truth and justice
Abstract concept but personified as a goddess (usually depicted with ostrich feather on head)
Goddess controlled cycle of seasons and stars and relationships between Egyptian people and their gods
Roles of the vizier and members of the religious, administrative and military elites
ROLE OF VIZIER
Supervised work of other officials; Acted as king’s deputy
Responsible for main departments of govt
All major officials reported to him (including managers of treasury, granary, state building projects, town mayors and provincial governors)
NK→ administration became complex and office of vizier was split into two
One controlled north
One controlled south (based in Thebes)
“He dispatches every official of the Royal domain…”Tomb of REKHMIRE (vizier of Thutmose III)
Duties included;
Maintaining law and order in civil cases, Supervising king’s residence, Appointing and supervising officials , Supervising temple workshops and estates, Controlling public works
RELIGIOUS ELITES
Many cults in Egypt for worship of different gods
Administered by overseer of prophets of all gods of Upper and Lower Egypt (position held by Chief Priest of Amun)
Temples were endowed by pharoahs with huge estates→ provided produce necessary for daily offerings to the gods and maintenance of staff (officials, priests, scribes, craftsmen)
ADMINISTRATIVE ELITES
Responsible for internal govt of Egypt (most important were viziers)
Overseer of Treasury→ responsible for taxation (paid in grain and cattle) stored in temple and state granaries for distribution in wages to officials and workers
Overseer of granaries→ supervised network of scribes who recorded intake, storage and distribution of grains and supplies
Other officials controlled judiciary (police)
Local district→ provincial governors, town mayors and lesser officials
MILITARY ELITES
Strict hierarchy headed by Pharaoh (advised by council made up of vizier and most senior military officers)
Main divisions were infantry and chariotry
Vital role of military in creation and maintenance of empire→ meant army leaders enjoyed high status and influence
Nature and role of the army
NATURE AND ROLE
Professional standing force
Served as a focus for growing nationalism (stimulated by victories in the war of liberation over the Hyksos)
Provided important career path for men of ambition and talent
Chariotry division led by the Pharaoh
As it conquered neighbouring regions→ it incorporated foreign troops as auxiliaries
Conquered regions were controlled by garrison troops stationed st strategically located fort’s; soldiers policed the local area collecting tribute and quelling any local rebellion
Naval contingents were used for transport and communications
Infantrymen were equipped with long and short range weapons. Most important was bow. Others included spears, lances, boomerangs
Used daggers, sticks and clubs for hand to hand combat.
Protective shields were made of wood covered with animal hide
Adaption of Hyksos military technology changed the nature of NK army.
E.g. Horse drawn chariot → new chariot corps gave army mobility in battle and in pursuit of enemies (chariot became distinctive symbol of warrior Pharaoh)
Body armour used and adopted curved swords
Infantry were recruited from conscripts and volunteers (spear men, bow men, axe bearers, club slingers, scouts, spies and messengers)
Chariotry were elite unit in army→ distinguished men of high birth, used as strike weapons ahead of infantry
Captives were bound, led by ropes around neck in front of pharaoh’s chariot or put to work in mines
During peacetime→ garrisons of soldiers left in towns and fortresses, colonists settled on farms, mercenaries in resident cities, soldiers acted as bodyguards for the King at festival time, employed in public works, accompanied on trade and mining expeditions
MILITARY CAMPAIGNS
Travel and transportation
Desert marches by infantry, Navy was used to ferry army up and down Nile and to transport men and supplies to Asiatic capital cities (E.g. Byblos for campaigns against Syria)
Decision making and tactics
Pharoah ultimate authority, Councils of war with generals, Frontal attack on enemy position, led by chariotry Use of siege tactics to force surrender
Spoils of war
Slaves, Grain and livestock, Weapons and armour, Luxury items
Treatment of the defeated
Slaughter→ hands or genitals cut off to keep tally of the dead, Taking of hostages or captives (e.g. Children of enemy leaders) Execution of rebel leaders, Mutilation and display of bodies as deterrents
Roles and status of women: Royal and non Royal
ROYAL
Woman’s role and status in NK depended on husband or close male relative
Some royal women had own tomb, but rare , most buried in tombs of male relatives
Dynastic roles was to maintain royal line of succession by providing heirs (kings had many wives)
Most important royal women were queens, wives or mothers of pharaoh
Religious role of queen as consort was to provide female principle that complemented the pharaohs relationship to male gods. E.g She was the hathor to his Horus
Duties of god’s wife of Amun→ included important rituals enacted within temple of karnak→ major precinct of Amun
Political role unclear→ traditionally wife of dead king acted as regent for new pharaoh when he was too young to rule in his own right
Still other wives were foreign princesses whose diplomatic marriage to the king cemented relations between Egypt and neighbouring powers
Egyptian princesses were never sent away as bridges for foreign rulers→ demonstrates Egypt’s superiority over its neighbours
NON-ROYAL
2 main groups→ upper class and commoners
Women of upper class→ did not generally take part in same sort of activities as male relative, but were expected to remain at home and manage domestic affairs
Reliefs from tombs→ Indicate activities included weaving, caring for animals, producing crafts items as well as baking, brewing, cooking
Servants available to women of this class
Bringing up children occupied a large amount of their time→ But had advantages of wet nurses and nannies
Little info on lives of women of lower class; Usually referred to as ‘mistress of the house” → meant housewife
Women of this class→ probably occupied with household tasks of raising children, preparing foods, weaving cloth and other physical tasks
Worked in the fields, on regular basis or at least in times of harvest or when extra labour was required
Some Egyptian women of New Kingdom were slaves, known only to use through documents that record the sale
Scribes, artisans and agricultural workers
SCRIBES
Workers made up majority of population; Highest ranking of class were scribes→(literate members of society)
Included secretaries and clerks→ jobs were to keep careful records(especially matters relating to tax and state administration)
Skills of scribes were essential to running of government
Wrote letters, despatches, surveyed and, measured eight of crops to assess taxes. Census, items of tribute and trade, measured and recorded gold supplies in temples, recorded allocation if equipment and rations to royal tomb workers
ARTISANS
Other skilled workers included artists and craftsmen (sculptors, carpenters, jewellers)
Influx of wealth into Egypt→ increasing need for trained artists and craftsmen with skills and imagination to meet demands of:
Kings massive building projects, dedicated luxury gods to gods, filled tombs with finest funerary objects
Upper classes→ tastes became more sophisticated, lifestyle more opulent, tombs more elaborate
Army equipment. E.g. chariots, weapons
Hierarchy of craftsmen; royal sculptors and goldsmiths at the top
Most favoured in group were those that worked in the Kings tombs
AGRICULTURAL WORKERS
Majority of pop were unskilled workers, occupied mainly in agriculture (mainstay of Egyptian economy)
Peasant was backbone to society; all other classes depended on farmers for their survival
Sometimes conscripted to work on buildings and major water and land management schemes
Other unskilled workers; animal herders and fishermen and servants of nobility→ prepared food and wine for banquets, performed as musicians, singers and dancers and waited on their superiors
Temple servants carried out similar duties in the cults of the various gods
THE ECONOMY
Importance of the Nile: agriculture, animal husbandry, transport
IMPORTANCE OF THE NILE
Crucial to development of economy→ agriculture depended on inundation
Food production most important economic activity
Fertile land bordering Nile also supported large herds and flocks of livestock
Nile was highway and main means of transport of goods between many of the towns and villages of Egypt
AGRICULTURE
Economy depended on agriculture from earliest times
After each inundation→ govt officials re-established old boundaries that had been swept away, created new dykes, measured land areas for next planting season
Silt deposited each year by Nile was fertile, but sometimes irrigation by hand was necessary
Shaduf helped this→ mechanism to transfer water from Nile to fields under cultivation (Beam, balanced on supporting tower, with bucket in one end and stone as counterweight.) Bucket was dipped in the river then swung around and emptied into irrigation ditch
E.g. Tomb scene painting showing a shaduf in the New Kingdom
Akhet (Inundation) → July-Oct: Workers relieved from field work, most work done on temples
Peret (Springtime) → Nov-Feb: Ploughing and sowing crops, emergence of plants in main growing season,
Shemu (harvest) → March- June: Harvesting, threshing and winnowing of grain, grain storage
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Livestock supplied meat, milk, hides and dung for cooking fuel. Oxen used for ploughing
Domesticated animals raised for food (pigs, sheep, goats)
Archaeological source of the inspection of cattle from the tomb of Nebamun, an 18th dynasty nobleman→ depicts cattle and how they were used in agriculture
TRANSPORT
Nile was main highway of Ancient Egypt (goods transported between major ports)
Heavy building stone (limestone, granite) transported on barges
E.g. Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple at Dier el Bahri; scene of the transportation of a pair of obelisks from Aswan to Thebes
Facilitated domestic trade between villages and towns
Economic exchange: barter and taxation
BARTER
Main form of economic exchange involved sophisticated barter system (used scale of value)
Main standard used for small transactions was copper, and basic unit was one deben
Value of any exchangeable commodity was expressed as a number of copper deben
E.g. One coffin valued at 25 deben → buyer would have tendered goods (goats, pigs) to this value
Economy depended on the distribution of raw materials and produce, including imported goods and locally produced commodities (barley, cattle, wine, linen)
Goods were redirected by the Royal storehouses as wages to officials, priests, artisans
TAXATION
Agricultural and other produce was carefully measured, countered and recorded by scribes
Govt granaries where grain was stored were essential to economy→ in absence of money currency, agricultural yield formed basis of tax system
Tax collection was most important task carried out by central administration
Conducted by treasury officials accompanied by scribes, and policemen carrying sticks
Tax calculated on heat of annual inundation
Addition to agricultural produce→ officials assessed trees, ponds, canals, herds, flocks and the yield from hunting and fishing
Egyptians careful accountants and tax evaders were severely punished
Tomb scenes depict assessment of produce and collection of taxes by scribes
Sometimes farmers beaten for tax evasion
“He is beaten savagely.” LANSING PAPYRUS
Any produce left after tax, farmers could barter in markets
Once the taxes were paid,mt here was very little left for farmers basic needs
Cheating on taxes was overcome by measuring height of crops and assessing amount of tax payable before crop was harvested.
Impact of empire: booty, tribute and trade
BOOTY
Military Scribes kept inventory of plundered goods taken back to Egypt after successful campaigns
Pharaohs proudly included lists of booty in victory stelae and temple pylons to advertise their success
Annals of Thutmose III records some booty taken after surrender of Megiddo:
“living prisoners: 340. Hands:83…One fine coat of mail belonging to the enemy.”
TRIBUTE
All goods coming to Egypt from foreign countries referred to as inw→ means “things brought”
Egyptians didn’t always distinguish between goods that came as a result of conquest, diplomacy or trade
Conquered towns became vassals of Egypt, and were required to pay an annual tribute or tax
Tribute through conquest→ Annual taxes levied in conquered towns and cities. E.g.timber, copper, lead from vessel towns in Syria
Tribute through diplomacy→ Diplomatic gifts exchanged with neighbouring powers. E.g. Gifts accompanying diplomatic marriages between Amenhotep III and princesses from Babylon and Naharin
Tribute through trade→ Products acquired through commercial exchange. E.g. Ivory from Syria, Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan
One of most important results of creation of empire→ development of diplomatic relationships with neighbours
Rulers of Mitanni and Babylonians recognised Egypt’s influence in region and exchanged gifts of gold and other valuables with the pharaohs→ Egyptians portrayed such gifts as tribute
Peaceful trading missions often followed conquest and diplomacy
Many scenes in tombs of important officials show columns of men bearing foods to be presented to the pharaoh or his officials
E.g. In tomb of Rekhmire (vizier of Thutmose III) shows Minoans dressed in typical kilts carrying distinctive Minoan pottery vessels→ Crete never conquered so scene probably depicts peaceful trading mission
TRADE
Foreign trade conducted through barter system (usually royal missions on behalf of king or great cult temples)
Merchants and soldiers followed in footsteps of soldiers and new and exotic goods made their way into Egypt from places a far away as Afghanistan and babylon
Expedition to punt during reign of Hatshepsut→ ships returned from Punt with exotic goods such as incense trees, gold, ebony, elephant tusks and panther skins
Crafts and industry: wood, stone and metal
Goldsmiths→ hammered gold and gold foil into shape to make ritual vessels, shrines, and jewellery
Jewellers→ brazing to fit lapis lazuli, carnelian, turquoise, faience beads into gold, drilling into stone beads with bow drills to make collars, earrings and bracelets
Portrait sculptors→ producing statues of kings and gods with bronze chisels and diorite polishers
Metal workers→ smelting ingots of copper and tin (bronze) in large furnaces and pouring material into moulds to make temple doors, mirrors and weapons
Carpenters→ working in cedar, ebony, meru woods with axes, pull saws, adzes, chisels and bow drills to produce coffin sleds, shrines, furniture and chariots
Leather makers→ soaking hides in jars of oils, stretching them over a board, hammering and scraping until the oil is absorbed into the skin and cutting out shapes for sandals, satchels, helmets and quivers
Craftsmen of Dier el Medina→ given better rations, supervised by vizier, equipment from govt warehouses, water, laundry etc→ worked 8 days in 4 hour shifts, returned to family for 2 days→ careful records
Tombs paintings show range of industry→ but not all stages of manufacturing are shown, tomb artist was selective in his choice of activities and techniques
Technology: tools, building materials, techniques and construction
Beginning of 18th dynasty→ known for exquisite craftsmanship and decoration
Process for construction of tombs–. When King commissioned building, everyone rejoiced→ would be employed, better access to rations and supplies
Once site chosen, plans drawn up and quarrying began
Stonemasons use copper and bronze spikes→ pounded with wooden mallet→ split the rock→ limestone debris removed from site in baskets→ Deposited on the Valley floor
Plasterers followed→ smoothing down walls
Draftsmen outline layout of text and pictures in red ink→ mistakes or improvements marked in black by master draftsmen
Sculptors and painters followed→ some stone did not favour reliefs so scenes were painted in plaster surface→ where carving was possible, sculptors used bronze chisels→ reliefs were then painted
Tools: Chisels, copper/bronze spikes, shovels, brushes, ochras for colour, mallet,
RELIGION, DEATH AND BURIAL
Gods, goddesses, cults and priesthoods including Amun -Re, Osiris
Gods/godesses:
Centered around family (temples called homes or mansions)
Revered animal headed deities (numerical groupings. E.g.Dyads; 2→ Endless duality)
Strong links between God and Pharaoh’s
Cults:
Each major god; associated with cult temple (centre of worship)
Some became wealthy; cultivation of land/trade, mining → managed by priesthoods
Cult of Amun-Re
Most important god (chief god of state religion)
Temple at Karnak→ higher status than other cults; priesthood became powerful
Cult of Osiris
Originally fertility god→ after murder and dismemberment; became god of underworld (chief God of dead)
Features of cult were important NK burial practices→ mummification, funeral, Opening of Mouth Ceremony
Priesthoods:
Called ‘servant of the gods’
High Priest; full time worked closely with pharoah, often held role of vizier
Second Prophet; in charge of agricultural estates, livestock
Appearance; ‘ritually pure’ → heads/bodies shaved, circumcised
Temples; not for public practice; priests prayed to Gods, not deliver sermons to civilians
Each temple/priesthood followed own customs and practices;no central system of religious belief
Priesthood of Amen→ Most important, controlled rich establishments, Pharaoh’s right hand
Festivals: Opet, Beautiful Feast of the Valley, Heb-Sed Festival
Opet
Occurred in Inundation (flooding) → lasted 27 days
Included 2 mile journey from Karnak to Luxor Temple→ particular focus on god Amun
Ensure prosperity and sustainability for the next year
Significance/purpose
Celebrate relationship between state god Amun and their pharaoh→ Pharaoh was regenerated (powers of Amun believed to pass onto his living son) → maintained kingship
Hatshepsut enthusiastic; had resting stations built between places→ Relief in Hatshepsut’s Red Chapel; depicting a wayside shrine she built
Scenes of festival featured on colonnade of Luxor Temple
Beautiful Feast of the Valley
Amun statue placed on ceremonial boat and carried to Nile; statues accompanied by pharaoh’s→ journey across Nile to necropolis (cemetery) Food offered for a feast
Shrines then taken to mortuary temples of deceased pharaohs where procession ended;rituals for dead ancestors performed
Public could visit and walk through VOK
Heb-Sed
Known as renewal of Kings→ oldest feast festival ; celebrated by the king after 30 years ruling and repeated every 3 years after→ represented ritual reenactment of unification of Egypt
Celebrate continuing rule of pharaoh
Amenhotep III had three festivals → His tomb scene shows the first festival;
Myths and legends: Creation myth, Osiris myth
CREATION MYTHS
No one central creation myth; all different variations, depending on location→ 4 main myths (Heliopolis. Hermopolis, Memphis, Thebes)
All have some elements of primeval waters/ mound or lotus flower
Originally transmitted through oral tradition→ But in New Kingdom more were recorded down
Sig for religion→ Gods and goddesses associated with creation; kept world in order.
Temples considered point at which creator God came into existence, and were considered mirrors of universe. E.g. Temple of Luxor by Amenhotep III to Amun→ symbols of lotus on columns
Sig for death→ Symbolic of rebirth; observed in new days, seasons etc
Conveyed messages about life and power of the spoken word (essence of being)
Death observed in myths, as before origin, there was just lifeless waters and creation allowed life to form.
Tomb paintings depict creation myths and gods and goddesses associated→ symbolising cyclical nature of life and beginning of new life in afterlife
Sig for burial→ Little known about specific funerary practices incorporating creating myths
Symbols associated with origin of universe frequently in tomb scenes
Originally people buried with representations of primeval mounds on top of graves→ practice changed by New Kingdom
A. Spencer (historian) → suggests representation of primeval mound wa sin sarcophagus standing on block of stone in tomb, → important in resurrecting body in afterlife, due to appearance of life from original mound described in creation myths
Bowl from 18th dynasty; Sig→ bowl’s blue colour represents water (source of creation) and lotus symbolism
OSIRIS MYTH
Seth jealous of Osiris attention; invited him to banquet and locked him in coffin;threw into Nile
Isis searched for body; performed ritual spells for protection
Re sent Anubis (god of embalming) and Thoth to help prepare and bandage his body→ form first mummy
Horus avenge father Osiris; battle Seth→ H declared rightful king
Significance:
Hope for afterlife→ offerings to Gods, judgment
Duality in Osiris’s order vs Seth’s chaos
Associations to the gods and goddesses and role in their rituals, beliefs (mummification and afterlife)
Reflects proper burial, spells for safe travelling of the Akh of Osiris (Isis) à Book of the dead
Mummification was refashioned to a corpse of an (OK) à mummiform similar shaped to that of the image of Osiris, à capabilities of “Osiris rebirth”
Akh of pharaoh = associated with other gods and would become one with Osiris
Wrapping the body à Anubis
Prayer, mourning, blessings, spells
