Effectiveness of Lang and Education policies

Question 1

Largely assimilative language and education policies were effective in establishing and popularising the use of a common language that created a basis for a common identity (I,T)

Answer 1

[I] Bahasa Indonesia as official language
- Bahasa did not come from any particular ethnic group
- Focus on broad, all-encompassing and inclusive principles
- Facilitate acceptance of dominant culture by avoiding explicit overtones of Javanese dominance
- Facilitated communication among a hugely diverse populace
⇒ Increased from 40.8% to >80% (1971–1990)

[T] Thai language
- 1939: All Thai subjects required to salute the flag, know the anthem and use the national language
- MOE syllabus required that all schools teach the Thai language
⇒ Basis for common identity

Question 2

Accomodative language and education policies were also effective in NU as they mitigated minority resentment and hence preserved social stability (S,M)

Answer 2

[S] English and bilingualism
English as the language of business and administration
1969 bilingual policy: Mother Tongue languages, based on race, must be taught from primary through secondary school
[M] Allowing vernacular languages in private schools
Although in 1970, it was decreed that Malay language would be used for instruction in all state schools, private schools were still able to learn Chinese and Tamil

Question 3

Lang and education policies were also effective insofar as they propagated national ideologies that were more broad based and central which cemented over differences (I, S)

Answer 3

[I] Pancasila and role of military
- 1964: Armed Forces History Centre → Entrench its role in I’s independence, from 1974 it was tasked with preparing history curriculum in schools
- 1989 National Education System Law → Teachers must have formal Pancasila qualification
- Expansion in number of schools → Over 100k new schools built, over 500k teachers employed → More people exposed to government’s notion of national identity

[S] 1966: More policies to inculcate patriotism
- Daily flag-raising with anthem and pledge
- Second language compulsory in secondary schools
- 1997: National Education = Official narrative of Singapore’s history and teach them about the culture and religion of SG society
- 2001: Social Studies as a compulsory examinable subject in all secondary schools = Developing a ‘deep sense of shared destiny and national identity’

Question 4

Largely assimilative language and education policies however, had the propensity to divide the populace and alienate minorities leading to a rise in minority consciousness and resentment, weakening social stability (P, T)

Answer 4

[P] Christian bias
- Centralised education system with a unified curriculum → Inculcate common Filipino identity
- Reflected a Christian bias; Muslims preferred to attend Madrasahs

[T]
1921 Primary Education Act
- Mandated State education be conducted in Thai, based on Buddhist ethics
- traditional Pattani pondok schools were closed
⇒ Met with strong, stubborn and systematic resistance; riots broke out in Pattani in Feb 1923 as authorities were accused of trying to close down religious schools and undermine the Malay language and Islam

Question 5

Further, the implementation of accommodative ethnic policies also had the propensity to widen inter-ethnic fault lines which complicated the achievement of a common identity (S, M)

Answer 5

6[S] Bilingual education
- Mother tongue defined artificially and narrowly as the language that belongs to a race, ironically not the language spoken with one’s mother
- Only 3 languages (Chinese, Malay, Tamil) have formal status

[M]
- Educational quotas and differentiated requirements for Bumiputera were introduced after 1971 so that the proportion of Malays who registered for local degree courses rose from 35.6% to 67%
- Islamisation of primary schools pushed Chinese to enroll their children in Chinese primary schools (ethnic enclaves)