Education of the young child Flashcards
The theory that behavior is learned through the observation of others as well as through the direct experience of rewards and punishment. - Bandura
Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura
Social Learning Theory
(observational learning theory)
Bandura found that children learn by observing others. In a classroom setting, this may occur through modeling or learning vicariously through others’ experiences.
Social Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura’s theory of personality, which emphasizes the importance of observational learning, conscious cognitive processes, social experiences, self-efficacy beliefs, and reciprocal determinism.
Theory that adds concerns with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectation to Social Cognitive Theory.
Social Cognitive Theory distinguishes between enactive and vicarious learning.
Enactive Learning Theory
Enactive learning is learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions
(self-regulation of behavior, goal directed behavior, self-monitoring).
Four elements of observational learning?
Four elements of observational learning:
Attention,
Retention,
Production,
Motivation and reinforcement
Vicarious Learning
Also known as observational learning or modeling;
Component of Social Learning Theory;
Expanded by Albert Bandura;
States that people pay attention to a model and convert the learning into action.
Jerome Bruner
Theories:
Discovery Learning
and
Constructivism.
Bruner suggested that learning is an active process in which a learner construct new ideas or concepts based on knowledge or past experiences.
His constructivist theory emphasizes a student’s ability to solve real-life problems and make new meaning through reflection.
Discovery Learning features teaching methods that enable students to discover information by themselves or in groups.
Discovery Learning
An approach to teaching that gives students opportunities to inquire into subjects so that they discover knowledge for themselves.
Discovery learning encourages students to think for themselves and discover how knowledge is constructed.
John Dewey
John Dewey-
He was a philosopher who believed in
“learning by doing” which formed the foundation of Progressive Education. He believed that the teachers’ goal should be “education for life and that the workbench is just as important as the blackboard.”
Viewed problem solving according to the scientific method as the proper way to think and the most effective teaching method.
Schools should teach learners how to solve problems and inquire/interact with their natural social environments.
Every learner attempts to explore and understand his/her environment.
Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget-
This psychologist believed children are born with an innate cognitive ability that must be developed.
He believed intelligence consists of interaction and coping with one's environment and proposed 4 levels: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operations, & Formal Operations
Ongoing process of arranging information and experience into mental systems or categories.
Organization
Mental systems of categories and experiences
Schemes
Adjustment to the environment.
Adaptation
Fitting new information into existing schemes.
Assimilation
Altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information ……?
Accommodation
Search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment.
Equilibration
Actions a person carries out by thinking them through instead of literally performing the actions.
Operations
Four stages of Cognitive Development
????
Four stages of Cognitive Development:
Sensorimotor -
0-2 yrs
Involves the senses and motor activity.
Preoperational -
2-7 yrs
The stage before a child masters logical mental operations.
Concrete Operational -
7-11 yrs
Mental tasks are tied to concrete objects and situations.
Formal Operational -
11 yrs - adult
Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of a number of variables.
Goal of education
Goal of education should be to help children learn how to learn.
Importance of developmentally appropriate education.
Individuals construct their own understanding.
Value of play.
Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky -
1896-1934
Russian developmental psychologist who emphasized the role of the social environment on cognitive development and proposed the idea of
Zone of Proximal Development
Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky’s theory, in which children acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that makes up a community’s culture through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.
Emphasizes role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society.
Children learn the culture of their community (ways of thinking & behaving) through interactions.
Zone of Proximal Development
Phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support.
Scaffolding
????
Support for learning and problem solving.
The support could be anything that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner.
Private talk.
Howard Gardner
Howard Gardner -
Harvard researcher that has identified
at least
8 types of intelligences:
Linguistic,
Logical/Mathematical,
Bodily/Kinesthetic,
Musical,
Spatial (visual),
Interpersonal (the ability to understand others),
Intrapersonal (the ability to understand oneself), &
Naturalist (the ability to recognize fine distinctions and patterns in the natural world).
Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow -
(1908-1970)
Humanistic psychologist who proposed
The Hierarchy of Needs,
with Self-Actualization as the Ultimate psychological need.
Humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from lower-level needs for survival and safety to
higher-level needs for intellectual achievement and finally self-actualization.
Self-actualization
Fulfilling one’s potential
- Need for self-actualization
- Esteem needs
- Love and belonging needs
- Safety needs
- Physiological needs
(Abraham Maslow)
B. F. Skinner
Operant Conditioning
Believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishment.
He is famous for his use of his operant conditioning apparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgins and rats.
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning -
Conditioning in which an operant response is brought under stimulus control by virtue of presenting reinforcement contingent upon the occurrence of the operant response.
A form of learning where by a response increases in frequency as a result of it’s being followed by reinforcement.
When behaviors are followed by desirable consequences, they tend to increase in frequency.
When behaviors do not produce results, they typically decrease and may even disappear altogether.
Erik Erikson
Eric Erikson -
1902-1994;
Freudian, Humanistic;
Created an 8-stage theory to show how people evolve through the life span.
Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting
“Who am I?”
Developmental Crisis -
Conflict between a positive alternative and a potentially unhealthy alternative. The way in which the individual resolves each crisis will have a lasting effect on that person’s self-image and view of society.
Erik Erikson -
8 stages of psychological development:
Erik Erikson -
8 stages of psychological development:
Trust vs. Mistrust,
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt,
Initiative vs. Role Confusion,
Generativity vs. Stagnation,
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg -
1927-1987;
Cognition, moral development;
Created a theory of Moral Development that has
3 levels;
Focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behavior.
Kohlberg’s
Stages of moral reasoning ?
Kohlberg’s
Stages of moral reasoning :
Moral Reasoning - the thinking process involved in judgments about questions of right and wrong.
Level 1 - Preconventional Moral Reasoning -
Judgment is based on personal needs and others’ rules.
Level 2 - Conventional Moral Reasoning -
Judgment is based on others; approval, family expectations, traditional values, laws of society, and loyalty to country.
Level 3 - Postconventional Moral Reasoning -
Social contract and universal ethics.
Carol Gilligan
Carol Gilligan -
Stages of Ethic of Care
Gilligan’s work questions
the male-centered personality psychology of
Freud and Erikson,
as well as Kohlberg’s male-centered stages of moral development.
Gillian proposed the stage theory of
moral development of Women:
Proposed a different sequence of moral development,
an Ethic of Care.
Individuals move from a focus on self-interest to moral reasoning based on commitment to specific individuals and relationships, and then to the highest level of morality based on the principles of responsibilities and care of all people.
A theoretical perspective that proposes that learners construct a body of knowledge from their experiences - knowledge that is may or may not be an accurate representation of external reality.
This is called ????
Constructivism
One’s knowledge and beliefs about ones own cognitive processes, and one’s resulting attempts to regulate those cognitive processes to maximize learning and memory.
Knowledge about our own thinking processes.
This is referred to as …. ?
Metacognition
In contemporary cognitive psychology, an organized body of knowledge about a specific topic.
Basic structures for organizing information, concepts.
This is referred to as …. ?
Schemata (plural for schema)
A phenomenon whereby something that an individual has learned at one time affects how the individual learns or performs in a later situation.
Influence of previously learned material on new material.
????
Transfer
Bloom’s Taxonomy
A taxonomy in which six learning tasks, vary in degrees of complexity, are identified for the cognitive domain:
Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, & Evaluation
The internal desire to perform a particular task; motivation associated with activities that are their own reward.
?
Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation promoted by factors external to the individual and unrelated to the task being performed;
Motivation created by external factors (reward or punishment)
?
Extrinsic Motivation
Characteristic approaches to learning and studying …. ?
Learning Styles
Student learning is influenced by:
Individual experiences, Individual talents, Prior learning, Language, Culture, Family, & Community Values
Considerations in teaching:
Considerations in teaching:
Multicultural backgrounds,
Age-appropriate knowledge and behavior,
The student culture and the school,
Family background,
Linguistic patterns and differences,
Cognitive patterns and differences,
Social and emotional issues
The extent to which two variables are related to each other, such that when one variable increases, the other either increases or decreases in a somewhat predictable manner.
This is referred to as ….?
Correlational Relationship
Causal Relationship
????
Explains why behaviors occur
A general belief that one is incapable of accomplishing tasks and has little or no control of the environment
?
Learned Helplessness
The belief that one is capable of executing certain behaviors or reaching certain goals.
?
Self-efficacy
Reinforcement
The act of following a particular response with a reinforcer and thereby increasing the frequency of that response.
A consequence that brings about the increase of a behavior through the presentation (rather than removal) of a stimulus.
This is … ?
Positive Reinforcement
A consequence that brings about the increase of a behavior through the removal (rather than presentation) of a stimulus.
This is …?
Negative Reinforcement
A process of reinforcing successively closer and closer approximations of a desired terminal behavior.
?
Shaping
In classical conditioning, the eventual disappearance of a conditioned response as a result of the conditioned stimulus being repeatedly presented alone.
In operant conditioning, the eventual disappearance of a response that is no longer being reinforced.
Extinction
Punishment
A consequence that decreases the frequency of the response it follows.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing a response every time it occurs.
Intermittent Reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only occasionally, with some occurrences of the response going unreinforced.
Ability grouping
The practice of placing students in groups based on academic ability or achievement.
Dialect of some African American communities characterized by certain pronunciations, idioms, and grammatical constructions different from those of Standard English.
African American English
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, The (ADA)
Legislation in the United States that extends civil rights protection of persons with disabilities to private-sector employment, all public services, public accommodations, transportation, and telecommunication including physical accessibility and the removal of barriers to hotels, restaurants, grocery stores, and parks if that can be accomplished without great difficulty or expense.
Stimulus that increases the likelihood that a particular response will follow.
Antecedent Stimulus
Assessment
Process of observing a sample of a student’s behavior and drawing inferences about the student’s knowledge and abilities.
ADHD
Disorder marked by inattention,
inability to inhibit inappropriate thoughts and behaviors,
or both.
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Disorders marked by impaired social cognition, social skills, and social interaction, presumably due to a brain abnormality;
Extreme forms often associated with significant cognitive and linguistic delays and highly unusual behaviors.
Classroom climate
Overall psychological atmosphere of the classroom.
Cognitive style
Characteristic way in which a learner tends to think about a task and process new information;
Typically comes into play automatically rather than by choice.
Crystallized intelligence
Knowledge and skills accumulated from prior experiences, schooling, and culture.
Cultural bias
Extent to which assessment tasks either offend or unfairly penalize some students because of their ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic status.
Behaviors and belief systems that members of long-standing social group share and pass along to successive generations.
Culture
Sense of confusion when a student encounters a culture with behavioral expectations very different from those previously learned.
Culture shock
Form of language that has certain unique pronunciations, idioms, and grammatical structures and is characteristic of a particular region or ethic group.
Dialect
Differentiated instruction
Practice of individualizing instructional methods, and possibly also individualizing specific content and instructional goals, to align with each student’s existing knowledge, skills, and needs.
Distributed intelligence
Idea that people act more “intelligently” when they have physical, symbolic, or social assistance.
Due process
The principle that government must respect all legal rights that are owed to a person.
Emotional and behavioral disorders
Emotional states and behaviors that consistently and significantly disrupt academic learning and performance.
Belief that intelligence is a “thing” that is relatively permanent and unchangeable.
Entity View of Intelligence
People who have common historical roots, values, beliefs, and behaviors and who share a sense of interdependence.
Ethnic groups
Awareness of one’s membership in a particular ethnic or cultural group, and willingness to adapt behaviors characteristic of the group.
Ethnic identity
Fair and nodiscriminatory evaluation
Nonbiased, multifactored methods of evaluation to determine if child has disability and needs special education; nondiscriminatory evaluation with regard to race, culture, or native language, with placement decisions made on basis of multiple test scores and observations.
Fluid intelligence
Ability to acquire knowledge quickly and adapt effectively to new situations.
Free and Appropriate Public Education
FAPE
Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) -
Special education and related services that:
(a) have been provided at public expense, under public supervision and direction and without charge;
(b) meet the standards of the state educational agency;
(c) include an appropriate preschool, elementary, or secondary school education in the state involved; and
(d) are provided in conformity with the individualized program.
Examination of inappropriate behavior and it’s antecedents and consequences to determine one or more purposes (functions) that the behavior might serve for the learner.
Functional Analysis
Giftedness
Unusually high ability in one or more areas, to the point where students require special educational services to help them meet their full potential.
Group differences
Consistently observed differences (on average) among groups of students (e.g., students of different genders or ethnic backgrounds).
The practice of educating all students, including those with severe and multiple disabilities, in neighborhood schools and general education classrooms.
Inclusion
Incremental View of Intelligence
Belief that intelligence can improve with effort and practice.
Variability in abilities and characteristics (intelligence, personality, etc.) among students at a particular age and within any group.
Individual Differences
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) -
U.S. legislation granting educational rights to people with cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities from birth until age 21;
Initially passed in 1975, it has been amended and reauthorized in 1997 and again in 2004.
IDEA operates under 6 basic principles:
Zero reject,
Nondiscriminatory identification and evaluation,
Free and appropriate public education,
Least restrictive environment,
Due process, &
Parent and student participation in shared decision making with regard to educational planning.
Individualized Education Program
(IEP)
Individualized Education Program (IEP) -
Written document required by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act for every child with a disability;
Includes statements of present performance, annual goals, instructional objectives, specific educational services needed, extent of participation in the general education program, evaluation procedures, and relevant dates, and must be signed by parents as well as educational personnel.
Ability to modify and adjust behaviors to accomplish new tasks successfully;
Involves many different mental processes and may vary in nature depending on one’s culture.
Intelligence
General measure of current cognitive functioning, used primarily to predict academic achievement over the short run.
Intelligence test
IQ score
Score on an intelligence test, determined by comparing a student’s performance on the test with the performance of others in the same age group. For most tests, it is a standard score with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
Educational setting for special needs children that most closely resembles a regular school program and also meets child’s special educational needs.
Long-term change in mental representations or associations due to experience.
Learning
Deficiency in one or more specific cognitive processes despite relatively normal cognitive functioning in other areas.
Learning Disability
Disability characterized by significantly below-average general intelligence and deficits in practical and social skills.
Intellectual Disability
Instructional concepts that integrate perspectives and experiences of numerous diverse groups and representing various cultures, ethnicities, ages, gender, and religions.
Multicultural curriculum
A theory that claims people are “intelligent” inmany different areas, including cognitive, emotional, and social domains.
Multiple Intelligences
In assessment, data regarding the typical performance of various groups of students on a standardized test or other norm-referenced measure of a particular characteristic or ability.
Norms
Positive Behavioral Support (PBS)
Systematic intervention that addresses chronic misbehavior by
(a) identifying the purposes those behaviors might serve for a student, &
(b) providing more appropriate ways for a student to achieve the same ends.
A federal law that prohibits the denial of participation, benefits of, or discrimination in any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance because of a documented disability, history of a disability, or the appearance of having a disability.
Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Form of English generally considered acceptable at school, as reflected in textbooks and grammar instruction.
Standard English
Student who has a high probability of failing to acquire the minimum academic skills necessary for success in the adult world.
Student at risk
Student who is different enough from peers that he or she requires specially adapted instructional materials and practices.
Student with special needs
Groups that resist the ways of the dominant culture and adopts its own norms for behavior.
Subculture
Genetic predisposition to respond in particular ways to one’s physical and social environment.
Temperament
View of intelligence;
proponents argue that intelligent behavior arises from a balance between analytical, creative, and practical abilities.
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Ability to imagine and mentally manipulate two- and three-dimensional figures.
Visual-spatial ability
How is student’s learning influence?
Age; Cognitive development; Language, Culture, Family, Community values, Individual experiences, Talents, Motivations, & Prior learning
Successful teachers need to understand each individual and all of the variables of their lives to be able to understand how they will ________ .
Learn
What are the primary group differences?
Language,
Culture,
Family, and
Community values
What are the primary individual differences?
Individual experience, Talents, Motivations, And prior learnings. (SCHEMA)
________ are Behaviors that are generally shared among students of specific cultural and ethnic groups.
Group differences
How are group differences identified?
When the behavior of the individuals in the same group is more similar, on average, than the behavior of individuals from different groups.
What is the norm?
Average behavior of the members of a group. It is important to remember that individuals within a group will also be somewhat different from one another.
Teachers should keep cultural differences in mind when anticipating or evaluating student behavior, as the ________ ________ that occurs when the child’s home culture and school culture have conflicting expectations that can negatively affect student’s academic achievement.
Cultural Mismatch
List five cultural differences.
- Use of Language and Dialect
- Talking and remaining silent
- Asking and responding to questions
- A focus on cooperation or competition
Form of speech that has certain unique pronunciations, idioms, and grammatical structures and is characteristic of a particular region or ethnic group.
Dialect
A relationship between countries in which rely on one another for resources, goods, or services.
Interdependence
A measure of social class based on income and education.
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Teachers should also recognize and attend to ….
individual differences in temperament, personality, and motivation.
________ hypothesized about general intelligence as a single (g).
______: Theoretical general factor in intelligence that influences one’s ability to learn in a wide variety of contexts.
Spearman
Who suggested intelligences is a triarchic, compromising analytical, creative, and practical intelligences?
Sternberg
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence is a view of intelligence that ……
Proponents argue that intelligent behavior arises from balance between analytical, creative, practical abilities.
What ability is associated with maturity and most influential in learning?
Listening to the ideas of others.
Students with the same intelligence levels often approach classroom task and think about topics differently. These individual differences are due to ________ or ________ styles.
Cognitive or Learning
________ learners break down tasks into pieces and approach each piece separately.
Analytic learners
________ learners approach a task as a single integrated project.
Holistic Learners
What is an active learning classroom characterized by?
Children choose their activities, materials, & experiences; learner-centered experiences; opportunities to touch, manipulate & experiment; a range of expectations for children; extensive talking, reading, & writing; opportunities to make decisions & be creative; respect & trust for learner; integration of content areas; & assessment as part of the daily routine.
How do children learn through the process of play?
They learn through an inner process to explore, experiment, and discover.
How is functional play characterized?
Increased motor skill;
desire to master physical challenges;
repetition to acquire physical skills, as well as gross and fine motor skills;
rough and tumble play;
rehearsing specific skills to be used in games or sports;
and experimenting with new materials & combining known materials in new ways to solve problems.
What characterizes constructive play?
Creating products like paintings, drawings, etc.;
Creating a poem or acting out a play;
Socio-dramatic play (creating forts, tents, etc.);
And
Making collections, organizing, trading, and displaying collections.
How is symbolic play characterized?
Playing out what can be imagined;
*Fantasy play/ pretend;
Assigning roles;
Playing with Barbie dolls or action figures;
Role experimentation based on experiences that are not concrete or direct;
And
*Playing with Language (riddles, jokes, nonsense verse, etc.)
