Education Flashcards
Social Policy & Education
What is social policy in education?
Social policy in education refers to government actions, decisions, and policies that impact the education system, such as curriculum changes, school structures, teacher training, and funding.
• Example: The introduction of free school meals or Academy schools under the Coalition government (2010-2015).
Social Policy & Education
• How do social policies influence education?
Policies shape the content, access to education, and equal opportunities.
• Example: The Education Reform Act 1988 introduced by the Conservative government, which standardized the curriculum across schools, introduced testing, and created league tables for schools.
Achievement & Education
What factors affect educational achievement?
Achievement is shaped by internal factors (within the school) and external factors (outside the school, such as family background and societal influences).
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Achievement & Education
What are external factors affecting achievement?
• Material Deprivation: Lack of financial resources can limit access to educational materials.
• Example: Students from working-class backgrounds may struggle to access additional tutoring or after-school resources.
• Cultural Deprivation: Lack of cultural capital (e.g., vocabulary, social skills).
• Example: Children from middle-class families may have more exposure to books and cultural experiences, boosting their educational performance.
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Achievement & Education
What are internal factors affecting achievement?
• Teacher Expectations: Teachers’ assumptions about students’ abilities can influence their academic performance.
• Example: Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) conducted a study that showed that teachers’ expectations influenced students’ performance, even when there was no real difference in ability.
• Labeling Theory (Becker): Teachers may label students (e.g., as ‘bright’ or ‘troublesome’), which influences their academic performance.
Ethnicity & Achievement (Internal/External Factors)
Q: What are the external factors affecting ethnic achievement?
A:
• Cultural Deprivation: Ethnic minorities may face barriers in education due to language differences, cultural misunderstandings, or racism.
• Example: Sociologist Barry Troyna suggests that ethnic minority children may struggle with language and cultural differences, putting them at a disadvantage.
• Racism: Discrimination both inside and outside of schools can limit opportunities for ethnic minority students.
• Example: Black Caribbean students have been found to face disproportionate levels of exclusion from schools.
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Ethnicity & Achievement (Internal/External Factors)
Q: What are the internal factors affecting ethnic achievement?
A:
• Labelling and Teacher Expectations: Teachers may hold racial stereotypes that affect their expectations and treatment of ethnic minority students.
• Example: Gillborn (1990) argues that the education system is institutionally racist and that ethnic minority students are subject to negative labeling by teachers.
• Institutional Racism: Practices within schools that disadvantage ethnic minority students.
• Example: Gillborn (2008) highlights how black students are more likely to be excluded from school or streamed into lower sets.
Social Class & Achievement (Internal/External Factors)
Q: What are the external factors affecting achievement by social class?
A:
• Material Deprivation: Students from working-class backgrounds may lack the financial resources for extra-curricular activities or educational support.
• Example: Working-class students are more likely to attend schools with fewer resources.
• Cultural Deprivation: Working-class students may have less access to cultural capital, affecting their educational achievement.
• Example: Bourdieu (1984) emphasizes how middle-class children are socialized into possessing cultural capital, which benefits them in school.
Social Class & Achievement (Internal/External Factors)
Q: What are the internal factors affecting achievement by social class?
A:
• Labelling and Streaming: Working-class students are more likely to be labeled as underachievers, which influences their academic trajectory.
• Example: Hargreaves (1967) found that students from working-class backgrounds were often placed in lower ability streams.
• Hidden Curriculum: Schools transmit values, norms, and behaviors that favor the middle class, such as discipline and compliance.
• Example: Middle-class students may excel in schools because their family background aligns with the behaviors and expectations schools value.
Feminism & Education
Q: What do feminists say about the role of education?
A: Feminists argue that education serves to reinforce gender inequality by socializing children into traditional gender roles.
• Example: Sue Sharpe (1976) found that girls’ priorities were largely focused on marriage and family, but by the 1990s, their focus had shifted more towards education and career.
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Feminism & Education
Q: How does education contribute to gender inequality?
A:
• Gendered Curriculum: The curriculum often reinforces gender stereotypes, such as women being associated with nurturing roles and men with careers in science and technology.
• Example: The lack of female role models in STEM subjects.
• Teacher Expectations: Teachers may have different expectations for boys and girls, often expecting boys to be disruptive and girls to be quiet and studious.
• Example: Francis (2000) found that teachers often give boys more attention, even though girls tend to perform better academically.
Marxism & Education
Q: What is the Marxist perspective on education?
A: Marxists view education as a mechanism that perpetuates social class inequality by reproducing the capitalist system.
• Example: Althusser (1971) argued that education is part of the ideological state apparatus that socializes students into accepting inequality.
Marxism & Education
Q: How does education reinforce social inequality according to Marxists?
A:
• Reproduction of Class Inequality: Education serves to ensure that children from different social classes are prepared for their roles in society, often reinforcing inequality.
• Example: Bowles and Gintis (1976) argue that the education system prepares the working class to accept subservient roles in the labor market.
• Legitimation of Inequality: Education justifies inequality by promoting the idea that those who succeed deserve their success.
• Example: The use of standardized testing to measure merit, which doesn’t account for social or material advantages.
Functionalism & Education
Q: What is the functionalist view of education?
A: Functionalists argue that education serves to integrate individuals into society by socializing them into shared values and by sorting them into roles based on merit.
• Example: Durkheim (1925) believed that education socialized children into the collective conscience, teaching them social norms and values.
Functionalism & Education
Q: What are the main functions of education according to functionalists?
A:
• Socialization: Education socializes children into the norms and values of society.
• Example: Schools teaching students respect for authority and conformity to societal rules.
• Role Allocation: Education helps identify students’ abilities and assigns them roles in society based on merit.
• Example: Parsons (1959) argued that education is a bridge between the family and society, helping children transition to adulthood and their roles in the labor market.
Postmodernism & Education
Q: What is the postmodernist view of education?
A: Postmodernists believe that education is no longer a straightforward process of socialization and role allocation. It is more fragmented, diverse, and influenced by global processes and consumer choice.
• Example: Postmodernists argue that education needs to adapt to a globalized world with a more individualized curriculum.
Postmodernism & Education
Q: How do postmodernists view the role of education in society?
A: Education no longer simply prepares individuals for work but provides personal development and allows for a more flexible and personalized experience.
• Example: The growth of home-schooling and alternative education models in the postmodern world reflects a move away from traditional schooling.
Gender Differences in Educational Achievement
Q: What is the trend in gender differences in educational achievement?
A: In recent decades, girls have outperformed boys in terms of academic achievement at all levels of education.
• Example: Girls tend to achieve higher GCSE and A-level results compared to boys.
Gender Differences in Educational Achievement
Q: What are the reasons for girls’ improvement in educational achievement?
A:
• Changes in the educational system: The introduction of coursework assessments helped girls more than boys.
• Feminist movements: Feminism has encouraged girls to focus on education and career success.
• Role models: Female role models in education and the workforce have encouraged girls.
• Improved female aspirations: Girls have higher career aspirations than in the past.
Boys’ Underachievement
Q: Why do boys tend to underachieve in comparison to girls in education?
A:
• Lack of male role models: There is a shortage of male teachers in primary and secondary schools, which may affect boys’ motivation and behavior.
• Peer pressure: Boys may be influenced by peer pressure to disengage from schoolwork and adopt anti-school attitudes.
• School culture: The school environment can sometimes fail to engage boys, especially those who are less academically inclined.
• Gendered expectations: Boys may not see education as a way to secure a fulfilling job, especially in the context of rising employment in traditionally male-dominated fields.
Gendered Subject Choices
Q: How do gendered subject choices impact academic achievement?
A:
• Girls tend to choose subjects like English, languages, and humanities that align with their strengths in communication and interpersonal skills.
• Boys often choose subjects like STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) that tend to be more heavily weighted in terms of future earnings and status but have fewer female role models.
• These subject choices often affect career prospects, with male-dominated subjects leading to higher paying jobs but more gender imbalances.
The Role of the National Curriculum and Gender
Q: How does the National Curriculum affect gender achievement?
A:
• The National Curriculum, introduced in 1988, aimed to standardize education, but there are criticisms that it may reinforce traditional gender roles in subject choices.
• Example: There are concerns that certain subjects (e.g., history and science) are male-dominated and reinforce stereotypical male roles, while others (e.g., English and sociology) may be perceived as more female-friendly.
The Impact of Feminism on Gender and Achievement
Q: How has feminism influenced gender achievement in education?
A: Feminism has played a key role in promoting female education and challenging gender inequalities, leading to an increase in girls’ educational achievement.
• Feminist movements have led to changes in school curricula and greater encouragement for girls to aspire to professional careers.
• Example: Campaigns for girls’ education, such as those by the Women’s Liberation Movement in the 1970s, pushed for equal opportunities for girls in education and the workforce.
Theories on Gender and Achievement: Internal Factors
Q: What are some internal factors affecting gender achievement in education?
A:
• Teacher expectations: Teachers may have different expectations for boys and girls, which can affect achievement. For example, girls may receive more positive feedback and encouragement.
• Gendered interactions: Boys and girls may be treated differently in class, with boys being more likely to disrupt class or dominate the conversation, while girls may be quieter and more obedient.
• Labelling: Teachers may unconsciously label boys as troublemakers and girls as more academically focused, which can influence how both genders perform.
• Peer pressure: Girls may feel pressure to conform to expectations of femininity, leading them to focus on more traditionally female subjects, while boys may face pressure to avoid schoolwork to maintain a tough image.
Theories on Gender and Achievement: External Factors
Q: What are some external factors influencing gender achievement in education?
A:
• Family influences: Girls often have more academic encouragement at home, with higher parental expectations.
• Media influence: Media can portray gender stereotypes, reinforcing traditional ideas about boys’ and girls’ roles.
• Workplace expectations: The traditional roles that girls and boys are expected to fill in the workplace may influence their educational aspirations and achievements.
• Economic and social factors: Working-class boys may face more barriers to achievement, such as fewer opportunities and greater pressure to work rather than continue their education.
The Impact of Social Class on Gender Achievement
Q: How does social class impact gender achievement in education?
A:
• Working-class girls may experience a gender gap, but they tend to outperform their male counterparts in terms of academic achievement. However, their aspirations may still be limited due to class-based inequalities.
• Middle-class girls often benefit from higher educational aspirations and greater parental support, which can lead to higher achievement.
• Working-class boys tend to underachieve in comparison to middle-class boys and girls, facing additional barriers in terms of education and future employment prospects.
Theory & Education
Q: What is the role of education according to Functionalism?
A: Functionalists believe that education performs several important functions in society:
• Socialization: Education helps socialize individuals into the norms, values, and roles of society.
• Role Allocation: It helps allocate people to the correct jobs based on their talents and abilities.
• Social Integration: It promotes social cohesion and integration by teaching shared values.
Q: How does Durkheim view the role of education?
A: Durkheim, a key functionalist, saw education as promoting social solidarity by integrating individuals into society and teaching them common values. He argued that education is crucial in maintaining social order.
Theory & Education
Q: How does Talcott Parsons explain the role of education in society?
A: Parsons believed that education acts as a bridge between the family and wider society, where children are taught universalistic standards (e.g., achievement based on merit) rather than particularistic standards (e.g., family-based norms).
Theory & Education
Q: What is Marxism’s view on education?
A: Marxists argue that education serves the interests of the ruling class (the bourgeoisie) by reinforcing class inequalities and maintaining the capitalist system.
• Althusser: He argued that education is an ideological state apparatus that reinforces the dominant ideology and controls the working class.
• Bowles and Gintis: They developed the “correspondence principle,” which suggests that schools mirror the workplace, preparing students for their roles in a capitalist economy.
Theory & Education
Q: How do Feminists view education?
A: Feminists argue that education perpetuates gender inequalities by reinforcing traditional gender roles and limiting girls’ and women’s opportunities.
• Stanworth: Found that girls are often subject to lower teacher expectations.
• Liberal Feminism: Advocates for equal educational opportunities for both genders.
Theory & Education
Q: What do Postmodernists argue about education?
A: Postmodernists argue that education must cater to diverse, individual needs in an increasingly complex and diverse society. They reject the idea of a “one-size-fits-all” system and emphasize choice, diversity, and flexibility in education.
Social Policy & Education
Q: What is the significance of education policy in shaping education?
A: Education policy influences the structure, content, and accessibility of education, aiming to address inequalities and improve educational standards. Policies can be designed to ensure equality of opportunity, choice, and social cohesion.
Social Policy & Education
Q: How did New Labour policies impact education?
A:
• Targeted Funding: New Labour introduced initiatives like Sure Start to improve educational opportunities for disadvantaged children.
• Academies: The New Labour government introduced academies as a way of improving failing schools by offering them more independence from local authority control.
• Increased participation: They also introduced policies to increase participation in higher education, including expansion of student grants.
Social Policy & Education
Q: What are the key features of the Coalition Government’s education policy?
A:
• Free Schools: The Coalition government introduced the concept of free schools, which are non-profit schools set up by groups such as parents, teachers, or charities.
• Austerity: Budget cuts affected education, leading to debates on the impact of reduced funding on standards and inequalities.
• Academies Expansion: The government extended the academy program, giving schools more control over their curriculum and management.
Social Policy & Education
Q: What was the Tripartite System in education?
A: The Tripartite System was introduced by the 1944 Butler Education Act and divided students into three types of schools:
• Grammar Schools for academically gifted students
• Secondary Modern Schools for average students
• Technical Schools for those interested in vocational education
This system reinforced class-based inequalities by giving more opportunities to middle-class children.
Social Policy & Education
Q: What is Comprehensive Education?
A: Comprehensive education replaced the Tripartite System in the 1960s, aiming to provide a more inclusive education system where all children, regardless of background, would attend the same type of school. This system aimed to reduce inequality and provide equal educational opportunities for all.
Achievement & Education
Q: What factors contribute to gender differences in educational achievement?
A:
• Internal Factors: These include teacher expectations, gendered subject choices, and classroom interactions that can influence achievement.
• External Factors: These include the influence of the family, media, and societal gender expectations. For example, girls may be encouraged to achieve academically, while boys may face pressure to conform to stereotypical masculine roles.
Achievement & Education
Q: What is the impact of social class on educational achievement?
A:
• Middle-Class Students: Tend to have better access to educational resources, higher levels of parental involvement, and greater cultural capital, leading to higher achievement.
• Working-Class Students: May face barriers such as lower parental support, fewer material resources, and lack of cultural capital, which can negatively affect their educational outcomes.
Achievement & Education
Q: How does ethnicity affect educational achievement?
A:
• Ethnic Minority Groups: Some ethnic minorities, such as Chinese and Indian students, tend to perform well in education due to strong family support and cultural values emphasizing education.
• Other Groups: Other groups, such as Black Caribbean students, may face challenges such as racial discrimination and lower teacher expectations, which can affect their performance.
Achievement & Education
Q: What factors contribute to gender differences in educational achievement?
A:
• Internal Factors: These include teacher expectations, gendered subject choices, and classroom interactions that can influence achievement.
• External Factors: These include the influence of the family, media, and societal gender expectations. For example, girls may be encouraged to achieve academically, while boys may face pressure to conform to stereotypical masculine roles.
Achievement & Education
Q: How does social capital influence educational achievement?
A: Social capital refers to the networks and relationships that individuals have, which can provide support in education.
• Middle-Class Families often have more social capital, such as connections to professionals and access to valuable networks, which can enhance students’ opportunities and achievement.
• Working-Class Families may have less social capital, limiting access to these beneficial networks.
Achievement & Education
Q: How do teacher expectations affect student achievement?
A: Teachers’ expectations can significantly impact students’ academic success.
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: If teachers have low expectations of students, it can lead to lower achievement, while high expectations can inspire students to do well.
• Labelling: Teachers may label students based on perceived characteristics (e.g., behavior or appearance), which can influence their academic performance.
Achievement & Education
Q: What is the impact of social class on educational achievement?
A:
• Middle-Class Students: Tend to have better access to educational resources, higher levels of parental involvement, and greater cultural capital, leading to higher achievement.
• Working-Class Students: May face barriers such as lower parental support, fewer material resources, and lack of cultural capital, which can negatively affect their educational outcomes.
Achievement & Education
Q: How does ethnicity affect educational achievement?
A:
• Ethnic Minority Groups: Some ethnic minorities, such as Chinese and Indian students, tend to perform well in education due to strong family support and cultural values emphasizing education.
• Other Groups: Other groups, such as Black Caribbean students, may face challenges such as racial discrimination and lower teacher expectations, which can affect their performance.
Achievement & Education
Q: How does social capital influence educational achievement?
A: Social capital refers to the networks and relationships that individuals have, which can provide support in education.
• Middle-Class Families often have more social capital, such as connections to professionals and access to valuable networks, which can enhance students’ opportunities and achievement.
• Working-Class Families may have less social capital, limiting access to these beneficial networks.
Achievement & Education
Q: How do teacher expectations affect student achievement?
A: Teachers’ expectations can significantly impact students’ academic success.
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: If teachers have low expectations of students, it can lead to lower achievement, while high expectations can inspire students to do well.
• Labelling: Teachers may label students based on perceived characteristics (e.g., behavior or appearance), which can influence their academic performance.
