Education

Question 1

What external factors create differences in educational achievement for ethnic groups

Answer 1

1) Language of parents
2) Family structures and support
3) Material Deprivation

Question 2

Language of parents - an external factor causing differences in educational achievement for ethnic groups

Answer 2

Ethnic minority parents are less likely to have adequate language skills. This puts them at a disadvantage when helping children with homework or applying for schools, or dealing with external agencies and teachers. Bowker says a lack of standard English creates a huge barrier to UK education
HOWEVER, The Swann Report suggests that language differences had little impact on educational achievement because most minority ethnic children have similar language skills as native speakers.

Question 3

Family structures and support - an external factor causing differences in educational achievement for ethnic groups

Answer 3

Dysfunctional family types can be to blame for underachievement of ethnic groups. MURRAY - African - Caribbean loan parenthood is to blame because lack of male role models and single mothers means child isn’t adequately socialised
HALL - Impact of slavery means black culture has lost its language, religion and ancestry. Therefore the black community are much less likely to integrate and assimilate with white middle class groups. - ‘The Culture of Resistance’
HOWEVER, this theory essentially blames the victim for their underachievement.

Question 4

Material deprivation - an external factor causing differences in educational achievement for ethnic groups

Answer 4

Most ethnic minority groups live in poverty, meaning they suffer from the disadvantages the working class face. E.g. A lack of room in the house, lack of peace and quiet, lack of nutritious diets, etc. 15% of ethnic groups live in over crowded homes. Pakistani and Bangladeshi are 3 times more likely than whites to be in the poorest 1/5 of the population

Question 5

What internal factors create differences in educational achievement for ethnic groups

Answer 5

1) Labelling
2) Pupil identities
3) Pupil responses

Question 6

Labelling - an internal factor causing differences in educational achievement for ethnic groups

Answer 6

Racialised expectations: Gilbourn and Youdell say teachers are quick to discipline black pupils over others for similar behaviour. Teachers misinterpret black pupil behaviour and see them as anti - authority.

Question 7

Pupil identities - an internal factor causing differences in educational achievement for ethnic groups

Answer 7

Archer: teachers often define pupils by stereotypical ethnic identities which often lack the favoured ideal pupil characteristics. It leads to negative labelling. Students who challenge the stereotypes get treated more harshly. Ideal pupil identity - white, heterosexual, middle class, achieving success through meritocracy. Demonized pupil identity - Black/white, culturally deprived, underachiever, unintelligent.

Question 8

Pupil responses - an internal factor causing differences in educational achievement for ethnic groups

Answer 8

Failed coping strategies - MIRZA: highlights how some pupils aren’t able to develop coping strategies when faced with teacher racism and labelling. Black girls avoided teachers by being selective about who they asked for help. They would also get on with their own work without participating in lessons. This puts them at a disadvantage by restricting their opportunities, therefore causing underachievement.

Question 9

How can teaching and learning in schools affect educational experiences of minority ethnic groups

Answer 9

The ethnocentric curriculum: Schools occupy this curriculum which focusses on the dominant culture, like white British in the UK. It fails to provide positive role models for ethnic minority groups.
Teacher labelling: Chinese pupils who are quiet, hardworking and passive are socialised in this way. Teachers see their success as ‘wrong’ because they haven’t achieved their success through natural individual ability, meaning they could never legitimately occupy the identity of an ideal pupil. HOWEVER, not all students will fall victim to the self - fulfilling prophecy.

Question 10

How has globalisation had an influence on educational policies

Answer 10

1) League tables: they compare achievement between different countries, and the UK is showing poor results so there is pressure to improve. (PISA) - a league table that is an international testing programme that compares standards.
2) Growth of internet: allows for new ways to access information and testing. Some schools have policies on home - based learning.

Question 11

Educational policies that have raised achievement for all and raised standards and improved equality of educational opportunity

Answer 11

1) Parentocracy
2) New labour government policies
3) Conservative liberal democratic policies
4) Formula funding
5) Cultural/ economic capital
6) Policies on ethnicity

Question 12

How has parentocracy raised standards and improved equality

Answer 12

Publication of exam league table increases parental choice. Power shifts from producers (teachers and schools), to consumers, (parents). Parents are able to look at exam results and see which school suits their child best based on their ability. This encourages competition between schools and so it raises their standards and they have to act like businesses.

HOWEVER: Ball argues that parentocracy is a myth, as not all parents have the ability to take advantage of the education system since they don’t have the cultural capital, (working class parents).

Question 13

How have new labour government policies raised standards and improved equality

Answer 13

Policies such as educational maintenance allowances (EMAs), which are bursaries given to lower - income students to encourage them to take up post - 16 qualifications. Labour government wanted to reduce inequalities between middle class and working class pupils.

HOWEVER: Labour government contradicted their policies to reduce inequalities for working class pupils as they raised tuition fees which will deter lower income students from going to university.

Question 14

How have conservative liberal democrat policies raised standards and improved equality

Answer 14

Introducing academies and free schools. Academies able to access funding directly from the government, giving them control over their curriculum. Free schools improved standards by allowing parents and teachers to change things they were unhappy with.

HOWEVER: Free schools only benefit those from highly educated social backgrounds, maintaining social inequality. Free schools also criticised for being divisive and lowering standards.

Question 15

How has formula funding raised standards and improved equality

Answer 15

The more students a school has, the more money they will get. Therefore popular schools will have more money to spend on highly trained teachers and high quality activities. Less popular schools won’t be able to do so as they’ll have less money, meaning they won’t be able to compete as they have lower standards and won’t be able to compete with their rivals. The strong competition generates higher standards among schools

HOWEVER: Competition - orientated schools usually suffer from segregation among pupils from different social backgrounds.

Question 16

How has cultural/economic capital raised standards and improved equality

Answer 16

Privileged - skilled choosers are middle class parents who posses cultural and economic capital which allows them to take advantage of the application process and have the money to pay for travel to and from school or even relocate near the school they want their child to go to. Disconnected - local and semi - skilled choosers lack the knowledge and resources which rids their children of opportunities.

HOWEVER: Even though the education market has claimed to increase equality and choice for parents, middle class parents are the only ones who are able to take advantage of the education market, whilst the working class can’t.

Question 17

How have policies on ethnicity raised standards and improved equality

Answer 17

Multi-cultural education (MCE) aims to promote the achievements of children from ethnic groups by valuing all cultures in the curriculum. Purpose of MCE is to raise the self-esteem of of ethnic pupils which was done in hope to raise their achievement.

HOWEVER: MCE picks out stereotypical features of cultures for the sake of inclusivity and fails to tackle institutional racism.

Question 18

List sociological contributions to our understanding of the role of education in society

Answer 18

1) Social solidarity (Functionalism)
2) Role allocation (Functionalism)
3) Meritocracy (Functionalism)
4) The correspondence principle (Marxism)
5) The ideological state apparatus (Marxism)
6) The myth of meritocracy (Marxism)

Question 19

How does the education system provide social solidarity

Answer 19

The education system transmits society’s’ culture (norms and values) from one generation to the next. Through history lessons students are instilled with a sense of shared heritage and community, so it reinforces social solidarity which society needs to function according to Durkheim

HOWEVER: Marxists argue that the education system in a capitalist society transmits ruling class ideology, as opposed to shared values.

Question 20

How does the education system provide role allocation

Answer 20

Davis and Moore say that when schools assess pupils’ aptitudes and abilities, it helps match students to the job they’re best suited. Also, inequality is necessary to ensure that the most important roles in society go to the most talented people. Higher rewards are offered to those in more skilful jobs, so students compete for them.

Question 21

How does the education system provide meritocracy

Answer 21

Parsons argues that pupils earn their status through the education system, as in the family it is ascribed to you. E.g. An older son and younger daughter may be given different rights/duties because of differences in age and gender. The education system allows individuals to achieve their status, since their own effort will determine their success. Schools are meritocratic because everyone must surpass the same ‘pass’ mark in exams and they are all judged against the same standards. - Everyone has the same opportunity to prove their ability

HOWEVER: There is plenty of evidence to suggest that equal opportunity in the education system doesn’t exist. For example, achievement is greatly influenced by class background rather than ability.

Question 22

How does the education system create a correspondence principle

Answer 22

What students learn in school via the hidden curriculum corresponds to what future employers need. E.g. Passive subservience of pupils to teachers - passive subservience of workers to managers. Acceptance of hierarchy in schools - acceptance of hierarchy in the workplace. Motivation created by external rewards in school and at work. E.g. Students put up with the boredom of lessons to get grades at the end, whilst workers put up with exploitation and tedium at work to get wages at the end of the month.

HOWEVER: Some pupils rebel, they don’t simply passively accept authority.

Question 23

How does the education system provide an ideological state apparatus

Answer 23

School create a false consciousness and ‘controls people’s minds’. It presents capitalist system as just and inevitable through state apparatuses such as the education system. Alternative systems are presented as unrealistic and state institutions encourage pupils to passively accept their future work roles and create a passive subservient workforce. There is no need to use repressive state apparatuses since the ideological state apparatus does its job well enough to avoid rebellion and revolution

HOWEVER: Postmodernists will argue that the education system reproduces diversity, not inequality

Question 24

How does the education system provide the myth of meritocracy

Answer 24

Schools teach pupils that everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed. People believe that if they fail it is due to their own lack of ability or hard work. However, pupils aren’t taught the truth which is that working class pupils face disadvantages in the education system as a result of their social background. Therefore they will accept lower paid jobs later in life.

HOWEVER: Marxist perspectives are deterministic - not every working class pupil fails via the education system.

Question 25

Role of education in society - Marxist evaluations

Answer 25

MARXIST EVALUATIONS:
1) Their view is deterministic. Not every working class pupil fails via the education system (Against the myth of meritocracy)
2) Some pupils rebel, they don’t passively accept authority (Against the correspondence principle)
3) Postmodernists will say that the education system reproduces diversity, not inequality. (Against Althusser’s ISA)

Question 26

Role of education in society - Functionalist evaluations

Answer 26

FUCNTIONALIST EVALUATIONS:
1) Marxists say the education system reproduces ruling class ideology and not shared values. (Against Durkheim’s social solidarity)
2) There is plenty of evidence to suggest that equal opportunity in the education system doesn’t exist. Achievement is greatly influenced by social class background rather than ability. (Against Parson’s meritocratic view of education)

Question 27

Internal factors that cause social class differences in educational achievement

Answer 27

1) Self - fulfilling prophecy
2) Labelling
3) Streaming

Question 28

External factors that cause social class differences in educational achievement

Answer 28

1) Material deprivation - housing and diet
2) Cultural deprivation - speech codes and parental attitudes
3) Differences in cultural capital

Question 29

The self - fulfilling prophecy - Internal

Answer 29

Teachers give pupils labels and treat them as if they are that label. E.g. Intelligent. Therefore the teacher will give them extra attention and expect a higher standard of work. The student will take this treatment on board and internalise it into themselves. The pupil will act as if they’re that label and proceed to achieve highly and have a positive self image of themselves.

Question 30

Labelling - Internal

Answer 30

Teachers attach labels to students regardless of their ability but on stereotypical assumptions depending on social class background. Teachers will negatively label working class students, such as ‘trouble makers’ even if it’s not true of the pupil. The teacher will treat the pupil as if they are that label which can negatively affect educational achievement.

Question 31

Streaming - Internal

Answer 31

When pupils are set by ability in school, working class end up in lower sets whilst middle class end up in higher sets. Teachers don’t see working class pupils as ideal pupils so they treat them negatively. WC pupils find it hard to get out of their sets so they’re locked in them with teachers who don’t like them meaning they get the message that they’ve been written off as ‘no hopers’ even if they were really hard working and ambitious.

Question 32

Material deprivation - External

Answer 32

Working class families will have a poor diet which won’t contain the correct nutrients for focus and concentration. This is because they can’t afford a healthy diet, or they lack the knowledge to know that a healthy diet is important for focussing. Children on poor diets will be hungry and tired and so won’t be able to focus in school.

Question 33

Cultural deprivation - External

Answer 33

Bernstein’s elaborated and restricted code. Middle class parents use elaborated code and working class parents use restricted code. Restricted code - small range of vocabulary, deictic language and simple sentences. Elaborated code - complex sentences and wider range of vocabulary. Schools use the elaborated code, putting WC pupils at a disadvantage. Teachers, textbooks and exams all use the elaborated code.

Question 34

Differences in cultural capital - External

Answer 34

Middle class who have cultural capital gain knowledge from places outside of school such as museums, theatres and travelling. Only the middle class have the money and knowledge to know that their children should be exposed to these educational experiences. Bourdieu, identified cultural, economic and educational capital. This is the money and education obtained by the middle class so that they can buy equipment for their children for school or relocate closer to a school they want their child to attend.

Question 35

Internal factors that influence gender differences in subject choice and educational achievement

Answer 35

1) GCSE Coursework
2) Equal opportunity policies
3) Positive role models

Question 36

External factors that influence gender differences in subject choice and educational achievement

Answer 36

1) Changes in the family
2) Changes in women’s employment
3) Girls’ changing ambitions

Question 37

GCSE Coursework - Internal

Answer 37

Gender gap in achievement was constant until 1989, which was when coursework was introduced to GCSE’s. Girls achieving in coursework was not due to boys’ failure, but rather girls’ socialisation. They were better at meeting deadlines, being neat and tidy, spending time and effort on their work, being organised, and taking more care with their presentation.

Question 38

Equal opportunity policies - Internal

Answer 38

Programmes such as GIST and WISE encouraged girls to pursue non - traditional gendered subjects. In 1988, the national curriculum changed so that girls and boys studied the same subjects. Also non - sexist career advice has been provided.

Question 39

Positive role models - Internal

Answer 39

Increase in female teachers and heads suggested to girls that a successful academic career was very much possible. Women in senior positions act as role models for girls. Girls were shown that pursuing a non - traditional gender role of importance can be realistic.

Question 40

Changes in the family - External

Answer 40

Increased number of female headed lone - parent families means more women are taking on breadwinner role. Increased divorce rates showed girls that having a husband as the provider wasn’t necessary. Decrease in girls first marriages means girls look to themselves and their qualifications to make a living.

Question 41

Changes in women’s employment - External

Answer 41

1970’s equal pay act made it illegal to pay women less than men for equal work. Proportion of women in work has risen from 53% in 1971 to 72% in 2020. Growth of service sector has offered more opportunities for women. Women breaking through the ‘glass - ceiling’ to secure high status positions. All these provide incentive for women to gain qualifications.

Question 42

Girls’ changing ambitions - External

Answer 42

Sue Sharpe’s study shows a change in the way girls see their future. In 1974, they thought academic success was unattractive and unfeminine. They had low aspirations for themselves. By 1990, girls saw themselves as capable of supporting themselves as independent career women. O’ Conner found that 14 - 17 year old girls no longer saw marriage and children as a major part of their life plans. (2006).

Question 43

Why have some working class boys joined anti - school subcultures

Answer 43

1) Status frustration - WC boys being in lower streams makes them feel as though they are in inferior positions, so they suffer from low self - esteem. This pushes them to look for alternative ways to gain status. This involves inverting school values of hard work by truanting or misbehaving and join subcultures to gain status among their peers.
2) WC attitudes - Fatalism and instant gratification mean they can suffer alienation in school and therefore join anti - school subcultures.
3) Expressing resistance - Because WC boys aren’t seen as ideal pupils, they will join anti - school subcultures to express resistance to negative labelling.

Question 44

Two arguments against the positivist view that sociology can be scientific

Answer 44

1) Interpretivists see sociology as not a science because sociology involves studying behaviour and thought, which science can’t do. For example, The Hawthorne effect must be studied using qualitative data and unscientific methods. They argue that sociology is for studying human behaviour, not quantifying it using scientific methods.
2) Kuhn says sociology is not a science because there is no paradigm that everyone agrees on. Paradigm - a particular and accepted set of thoughts and assumptions about the way things are and the way research should be done. Therefore, science is paradigmatic, as there are a set of rules and principles followed by all scientists. Sociology is pre - paradigmatic since there is no agreed set of norms and values. There are disagreements between sociological perspectives, even internally. E.g. Merton’s criticisms of other functionalists.

Question 45

Three functions that the education system performs for society

Answer 45

1) Reinforce social solidarity - Schools transmit society’s culture from one generation to the next and therefore establish the norms and values that they should have in a cohesive society. This can happen through history lessons which creates shared heritage.
2) Correspondence principle - Forcing pupils to accept their roles in the hierarchy and to be passive and submissive which is what employers look for in employees.
3) Role allocation - Schools act as proving grounds for pupils where the most able will achieve and succeed. They’ll receive rewards through high level jobs. Students will compete with one another to gain these rewards in schools for the jobs most suited to their ability.

Question 46

Outline and explain two cultural factors that may affect ethnic differences in educational achievement

Answer 46

1) Parental attitudes to education - Indian and Chinese parents are more likely to be pro school and encourage their children to be successful in education.
2) Language - For some pupils, English may be their second language and so they’ll have difficulty understanding class work.

Question 47

Outline three ways in which school may mirror work in a capitalist society

Answer 47

1) School teaches pupils to be passive and subservient to those above them in the hierarchy, just as employees are to employers.
2) Both school and the workplace motivate people to achieve through external rewards. Pupils put up with boredom of class to get grades at the end of school and workers put up with boredom and tedium to achieve wages at the end of the month.
3) Both are fragmented. School is divided into unconnected subjects and work is divided into unconnected tasks.

Question 48

Outline three ways in which selection policies may widen social class differences in educational achievement.

Answer 48

1) Through the 11+ exam, middle class pupils are more likely to pass and go to grammar schools as a results of their resource advantage.
2) Streaming and setting means middle class pupils end up in higher streams and working class in the lower streams. Teachers don’t see working class students as ideal pupils and so treat them negatively, meaning working class pupils will find it hard to get out of the lower streams and achieve success.
3) More popular and competitive schools with higher standards have the ability to select any student they want. This is usually middle class pupils who are seen as ideal pupils.

Question 49

Outline two criticisms of schools selecting pupils by ability

Answer 49

1) Streaming and setting: Teachers have negative views of working class pupils who get put into lower sets meaning they find it very hard to get out of these low sets. Teachers treat them as ‘no-hopers’.
2) Middle class are really the only beneficiaries since they have better access to resources which enable them to achieve higher in tests such as the 11+ exam.

Question 50

Outline two ways in which parentocracy may lead to inequalities in educational outcomes

Answer 50

1) Cultural capital: Middle class parents have more access to social and cultural capital so their knowledge of the best schools will be larger and they’re more aware of the application process and how to complete it to get their child into schools. They’re privileged - skilled choosers. Their children will be able to go to the best schools whilst WC parents’ won’t be able to.
2) League tables: Schools get the opportunity to ‘show off’ their exam results meaning parents can choose which school they want their child to go to based on how successful it is. This is only a benefit to the middle class since they have the cultural capital and freedom to choose from a variety of schools.

Question 51

Outline three reasons why education may not be seen as meritocratic

Answer 51

1) Labelling: Working class children more likely to be labelled negatively such as ‘troubled students’. They are treated negatively as a result of the label which can lower their self - esteem, meaning they don’t have equal opportunity.
2) The correspondence principle: Students are taught to be passive, submissive, and to accept hierarchy rather than to use their talents to achieve
3) Cultural capital: Middle class pupils possessing cultural capital fall in line with the schools habitus. Schools only value and take on board middle class tastes. For example studying Shakespeare.

Question 52

Outline and explain two reasons why values may enter sociological research

Answer 52

1) Since humans study other humans, there is bias. Sociological research may be value laden because it’s impossible for sociologists to stay neutral as they’re humans studying humans. They will inevitably have opinions. Choice of topic is biased too.
2) Sociologists studying what they’re interested in so it’s value committed. Usually desirable for sociologists to keep their subjective values (personal viewpoints, opinions and experiences) in their research.

Question 53

Outline and explain two practical disadvantages of using documents in sociological research

Answer 53

1) They’re difficult to access and locate. Documents that hold sociological value may be held in a private collection. May cost researchers a lot of time and money to gain access to the documents. May not be representative of whole communities, so it’s difficult to draw conclusions on large groups
2) They can lack authenticity. Parts of document may be missing due to age. It will be hard to verify who wrote the document. May have been distorted for political reasons. It takes a lot of time to authenticate documents.

Question 54

Outline three examples of ways in which government policies may have reduced social inequalities in educational achievement

Answer 54

1) Abolition of tripartite system: Because everyone now had to go to the same secondary school, middle class pupils couldn’t take up all the places in grammar schools.
2) Education maintenance allowance: EMAs is a financial support provided to lower income students to encourage them and help them to gain post 16 qualifications
3) Education action zones: EAZs are targeted funds for schools in socially deprived areas to try and raise achievement.

Question 55

Outline 3 reasons why government policies aimed at raising educational achievement among disadvantaged groups may not always succeed

Answer 55

1) Difficult to implement the policies. For example, if they involve intervening in pupils’ life to change how parents socialise or motivate their children.
2) Policies like free school meals may have low uptake due to the stigma attached to them
3) Privileged groups may take advantage of them and they may not reach targeted, disadvantaged groups. For example, the assisted places scheme only really benefited the middle class.

Question 56

Outline three reasons why some working class parents fail to attend parents evening

Answer 56

1) Inability to afford transport to and from school. They can’t afford the costs of attending
2) Refusal to attend as a result of their lack of interest or low value they place on education
3) Lack of education/inability to understand school work could cause them embarrassment.

Question 57

Outline three government policies that may have reduced social class differences in educational achievement

Answer 57

1) Education maintenance allowance. Bursaries and student money given to lower income students to encourage and help them to pursue post 16 qualifications
2) Comprehensive schooling. All students attending the same schools meant there was less class inequality.
3) Tripartite and 11+. This gave students equal opportunity to succeed based on meritocracy

Question 58

Give two reasons why pupils from ethnic minority groups achieve above average results in school

Answer 58

1) Different attitudes and values: Asian families have high aspirations for their children. It contributes to educational success as these attitudes translate down to their children. They put a lot of pressure on them and expect good results. HOWEVER, black children aren’t socialised into culture of high aspirations. Therefore they adopt fatalistic attitude. They don’t work hard which offers deferred gratification so they underachieve.
2) Factors in school: Teachers have high expectations of middle class Asian pupils and concentrate on them and give them more attention at the expense of white and black pupils. The emphasis on league tables also means teachers will target those who will achieve the highest grades, which is usually middle class Asian pupils. Labelling also means teachers already have an ingrained idea of how successful they will be in school because of stereotyping. It will create a self - fulfilling prophecy if they’re labelled as intelligent. HOWEVER, labelling can mean that other ethnic minority groups underachieve as they’re neagitvely labelled.

Question 59

Outline three reasons why working class girls still underachieve in education

Answer 59

1) Symbolic capital: Sense of worth that we are able to obtain from others. It prevents them from acquiring educational capital because they’re too focused on recognition
2) Hyper heterosexual feminine identity: Girl invest considerable time, effort and money in constructing desirable or glamourous identities. Therefore they can be punished for wrong school uniform or make up. Teachers also assume they are incapable of success because they’re focussed on themselves rather than school work.
3) Double standards: Boys are praised for being sexually active by their peers. Girls however were judged negatively and labelled as ‘slags’ if they were promiscuous.

Question 60

What are practical considerations of research methods

Answer 60

1) Time
2) Cost
3) Access

Question 61

What are ethical considerations of research methods

Answer 61

1) Consent
2) Protection from harm
3) Confidentiality

Question 62

What are theoretical considerations of research methods

Answer 62

1) Reliability
2) Validity
3) Examples
4) Representativeness