education Flashcards
1
Q
what does role allocation mean?
A
splitting people up to guarantee certain occupations
2
Q
what does the Tripartite system mean?
A
division of the secondary school sector into 3 types: grammar, technical and modern schools. Children were selected and allocated to one of the 3, based on their abilities - determined by 11+ exam
3
Q
what is social inclusion?
A
policies that try to keep students in school, includes them
4
Q
what is habitus?
A
refers to “dispositions” or learned, taken-for-granted ways of thinking, being + acting that are shaped by a particular social class. Includes tastes + preferences about lifestyles, consumption, outlook on life + expectations about what’s normal
5
Q
educational policies - what are the different types of schooling/ what do they involve?
A
grammar= created in 1994 for tripartite system. Selective school, state school for people who passed 11+ exam
comprehensive = created by Croslend, introduced in 1960s + 70s to replace grammar schools
private schools = not constrained by government, independent, fee paying. Top private = public schools. Freedom on what to teach
6
Q
what are the arguments for and against grammar schools?
A
for = Functionalists - good for role allocation, gives greater choice to parents, enables students to excel. Against = stigmatises those who don't go, means other schools don't have a range of abilities, causes social divisions of abilities - middle class can go, class reproduction
7
Q
what are arguments for and against comprehensive schools?
A
for = doesn't select on ability, all abilities - view of what others are like, provide equality of educational opportunity, less social division against = Ball (New Right) - still social divisions - based on catchment, holds most able back, difficult to teach mixed ability - streaming/setting
8
Q
what are the arguments for and against private schools?
A
For = Assisted Places Scheme - state pays fees for able students. Provide choice for people Against = education should be equal, middle class parents utilised this scheme - state are funding private schools. Creates class scheme divisions
9
Q
marketisation of education - conservative government 1979-1997
what is the marketisation of education?
A
introducing supply + demand - making schools become businesses. Introduced by Margaret Thatcher from 1979
10
Q
what sociologist discusses parentocracy and what is it?
A
Miriam David - give power to parents as consumer, consumer rights
11
Q
what are academies and free schools?
A
schools that get funding directly from central government, becomes USP, can be more independent
12
Q
what is open enrolment?
A
open to outside catchments, schools have to accept any student from anywhere up until their max
13
Q
what is formula funding?
A
funding based on student numbers. Attract more students to gain more funding
14
Q
what are league tables and Ofsted?
A
league tables = used to market the school - compete, now become redundant
Ofsted = schools compete to be rated outstanding
15
Q
what are the consequences of marketisation?
A
A-C Economy - Gillborn and Youdell - schools focus resources on students predicted grades c + above (prioritise certain students) due to league tables - builds in inequality
Cream skimming = students who will do well in league tables - could be on entry to school/dropping certain subjects. Silt shifting = get rid of students who will do less well/cost school money
educational triage = focusing resources on students where input will have significant difference, Some students will do well/or fail - no effort put into them. Students predicted 4s/5s - put resources to them
Myth of parentocracy - Sharon Gerwitz = 3 types of parents:
1. privileged skilled choosers - parentocracy exists, pressurise children + teachers
2. semi skilled teachers
3. disconnected local choosers - 2+3 have no parentocracy + no power to make right choices for child
16
Q
Labour government policies - marketisation and social inclusion.
Who introduced these policies?
A
Tony Blair - 1997. Continued with marketisation + included policies of social inclusion
17
Q
what are Education Action Zones?
A
money going to schools in poorer communities
18
Q
what are City Academies?
A
underachieving schools in cities that were given money + private sponsorship. E.g. Dickson’s city academy
19
Q
what are specialist status schools?
A
became maths + computing to widen parental choice. Extra funding for being specialists - Northgate - language school
20
Q
what is Sure Start?
A
taken away in 2010 by coalition gov. Pre-school activities funded by government. Ensure children don’t fall behind when going to primary school
21
Q
what are EMA/bursaries?
A
money given directly to students if they’re eligible
22
Q
what is Aim Higher?
A
schools encourage children to go to university, particularly students who’s families didn’t go (working class)
23
Q
Coalition/conservative government policies
What are free schools/academies and what did this government abolish/increase?
A
free schools/academies = funded directly by state - set up + run by parents, teachers, faith organisations or businesses rather than local authority. Take control away from state + give power to parents
Abolition of EMA + Increased Tuition Fees
24
Q
what is fragmented centralism and which sociologist discusses it?
A
Ball = whole of education system has been broken up - used to be controlled by LEAs (local education agencies/authorities), central government is taking greater control
25
what is the privatisation of education/what is it known as?
Colaisation - private sector penetrates education indirectly e.g. through vending machines + displays of sponsorships on school premises
26
what are the 2 education acts associated with coalition government?
1994 Education Act = created tripartite system
| 1988 Education Act = introduced market forces/marketisation
27
vocational education - what is new vocationalism?
movement in 1970s. Encouraged schools to teach work related learning - vocational education
28
what are the types of vocational education and training?
work experience, vocational subjects (resistant materials), BTECS (H+SC, Travel + Tourism), S Levels, GNVQS, applied subjects (T+T), enterprise days, career fairs
if schools focus on STEM subjects = more funding
29
what do New Right believe about educational policies?
Chubb + Moe = greater freedom for individuals, voucher system in America. Everyone gets voucher every year to use in an educational establishment of their choice - state funds private education
30
what do neo-liberalists (similar to New Right) believe about educational policies?
reduced role of state, smaller governments, enhancing free market, encouraging consumer choice/inequality
31
what do Marxists believe about educational policies?
greater equality of outcome/education, looking at educational policies that increase equality/social inclusion - comprehensive schools
32
what do Postmodernists say about educational policies?
allowing people greater choice in education - globalisation of education e.g. life-long learning
33
what are compensatory educational policies and some examples?
policies that help students with cultural + material deprivation, e.g. Free School Meals, Pupil Premium = money that schools receive for each pupil from a disadvantaged background
34
what are some evaluation points on compensatory educational policies?
```
students still underachieve due to capitalist society
statistical trends on class differences in educational achievement show working class students on FSM do less well than students who aren't on FSM every year.
```
35
outside school explanations - what is material deprivation?
a lack of income which effects size of home, travel - leading to a lack of resources e.g. laptop, equipment
36
what did Marilyn Howard say about material dep?
diet + nutrition. Healthier diet - achieve better grades. Cheaper food - less minerals, energy and vitamins. Weakens immune system, more absences from school. Working class underachieve
37
what did Richard Wilkinson say about material dep?
leads to emotional/behavioural problems. Poor households - more likely to suffer from ADHD, have psychological issues from home background
38
what did Emily Tanner say about material dep?
lack of resources, computer, internet connection, books. Resources help students achieve
39
what did Tess Ridge say about material dep?
stigma of free school meals, stigma of being poor. If from poorer background, more likely to take on extra paid work - effect education
40
what did David Bull say about material dep?
cost of free schooling - they do cost money. Pay for books, deposits, trips, uniform
university + fear of debt - poorer students drop out at higher rate, go to local unis - not most inclusive
41
what is cultural deprivation?
values of working class are lacking, attitudes, motivation, understanding
42
what did Douglas say about cultural deprivation?
1960s, how working class parents don't value education, don't read to children/buy them educational toys
43
what did Bereiter and Englemann say about cultural dep?
language - lower class is lacking/deficient - using slang, not corrected on grammar
44
what did Bernstein say about cultural dep?
Elaborate - middle class, wider vocabulary, longer/grammatical complex sentences, communicates abstract ideas
restricted - working class, limited vocab, short/grammatically simple sentences, context-bound
language codes. Codes socialised into us, recognise different languages
45
what did Hyman say about cultural dep?
working class have a distinct subculture with different values to rest of society - values lead to underachievement
46
what did Sugarman say about cultural dep?
Fatalism - accept failure, don't change it, whatever will be will be
Collectivism - failing as a group rather than succeeding as individual - wc boys
Immediate gratification - getting rewards straight away (middle class - deferred)
present-time orientation - living for the moment, no long term plans
47
what evaluation can be used for the cultural deprivation argument?
```
Nell Keddie = working class children are culturally different, not deprived. Cultural deprivation is a myth + victim-blaming explanation
Barry Troyna + Jenny Williams = teachers have a "speech hierarchy" - label middle class speech highest, followed by working class speech + then black speech. Schools need to adapt to working class students as opposed to the student adapting to the school.
```
48
what is cultural capital?
values, norms, knowledge of the middle class that is rewarded in society
49
what did Bourdieu say about cultural capital?
middle class do better in school because their culture is rewarded in school
50
what did Gerwitz say about cultural capital?
cultural capital + marketisation = leads to privileged skilled choosers - have cultural capital, understand how education system works.
Those lacking cultural capital become disconnected local choosers - working class
51
what is the general evaluation of outside school explanations?
fail to look at what goes on inside the school. Outside school explanations tend to take a Positivist approach - statistics, money. Fail to look at small-scale interactions
52
Inside school explanations - linked to Interpretivists.
| What is the hidden curriculum?
indirect learning that takes place, not on syllabus. Exists all the time - uniform, rules you abide by, food you eat
53
what sociologists talked about teacher labelling?
```
Becker = ideal students - research in Chicago school. Middle class students
Cicourel + Kitsuse = certain knowledge is given to middle students + deprived from working class students
Rist = Tigers (middle class), cardinals + clowns - labelling in primary school. Student experience shaped by primary school grouping in classrooms
Keddie = some subjects are labelled differently - resistant materials (working class), middle class subjects - Latin
```
54
what did Rosenthal + Jacobson say about self-fulfilling prophecy?
primary school - some students had higher IQ, but they didn't actually. Teachers were told certain children had a higher IQ so taught them better. Teacher behaviour labelled them as bright, achieved better grades
55
what are pupil subcultures + streaming?
```
subcultures = students form own culture - pro/anti school.
Streaming = people you compete/mix with
```
56
what did Lacey say about self-fulfilling prophecy?
consequences of streaming/setting:
Differentiation = putting them into different ability groups
Led to polarisation - creating extreme behaviours
57
what did Woods say about self-fulfilling prophecy?
```
Criticised Lacey. Looked at types of subcultures rather than being created by labelling/streaming.
Emerged from own working class backgrounds
```
58
what did Bourdieu say about pupil class identities + the school?
Habitus = of working class life is different to habitus of school life - cultural clash
59
what did Archer say about pupil class identities + the school?
symbolic capital/violence = reward you get for your culture. Middle class get rewarded for culture. Working class - reject culture in order to be rewarded or exaggerated working class culture (Nike identities) to gain symbolic capital from friends
60
what did Ingram say about pupil identities + the school?
grammar schools - working class students found it difficult to fit into middle class ones. Not accepted in school + community
61
what do Interactionists and Marxists look at ?
```
Interactionists = inside school factors, labelling
Marxists = home background, underachievement, Willis, Bourdieu
```
62
what did Bowles + Gintis look at?
they are structural Marxists. Looked at correspondence principle - schools mirrors workplace - uniform, hierarchy. Prepares individuals for capitalist society.
Myth of meritocracy - schools convince you we live in a meritocratic society
63
what did Althusser look at?
Structural Marxist. Looked at ISA (Ideological State Apparatus) - stop thinking about protesting, spreads ideas of capitalism. RSA (Repressive State Apparatus) - forces e.g. police
64
what did Bernstein look at?
elaborate + restricted speech codes = cultural deprivation theorist
65
what did Mac an Ghaill look at?
Real Englishmen (do alright due to innate ability) + Macho Lads (fail).
Male Gaze - reinforces gender divisions, sexualises female students.
Ethnicity - why some 6th formers of ethnic minorities didn't underachieve
66
what did Talcott Parsons look at?
Functionalist. Looked at issues of meritocracy - (there is one). Schools are a bridge between family + work, learn universalistic rules
67
what did Nell Keddie look at?
Criticised cultural deprivation theory. Working class didn't lack culture, just culturally different
68
what did Davis + Moore look at?
Functionalists. Looked at how schools role allocate students (sort them into the best job)
69
what did Paul Willis look at?
Neo/humanist Marxist. Working class boys fail themselves so that we can reproduce the class system - the Lads
70
what did Louise Archer look at?
pupil identities + symbolic capital = different groups of students create identities to gain symbolic capital e.g. Nike identities, hyper-heterosexual feminine identities.
Ethnicity - imposed more by teachers. Ideal pupil identity (white, middle class, naturally talented), demonised (black/white working class, underachieve), pathologised (Asian who worked hard to achieve, not natural ability, asexual identity
71
what did Sue Sharpe look at?
```
Feminist. Girls changing attitudes towards education. 1970s - working class girls focused on relationships, leaving school early.
1990s - pro school, different types of career options
```
72
what did Barry Sugarman look at?
cultural deprivation theorist. Looked at 4 concepts, fatalism, collectivism, present-time orientation, immediate gratification
73
what did Pierre Bourdieu look at?
Humanist Marxist. Habitus - way of life of social class, culture. Distinctive working class culture, cultural capital
74
What did Howard Becker look at?
Interactionist. Labelling + ideal pupil
75
what did Mary Fuller look at?
black girls at comprehensive school were negatively labelled, anti-school but pro-education, still went on to achieve
76
what did Gillborn and Youdell look at?
ethnicity + educational policies. Teachers have racialised expectations - quick to discipline black students. A-c economy + educational triage
77
what did Tony Sewell look at?
black boys turn to gangs for tough love - reject school. Lack of father figure in home - educational underachievement. 4 types of subculture that boys join: rebels, innovators, conformists, reatreaters
78
gender differences in educational achievement - what do statistics show?
girls out-perform boys in all areas of education (starting at school, key stages 1-3, GCSE, AS/A level + vocational courses). 2006-7 - 65% of females achieved 5/more GCSEs at grades A*-C, whereas boys was 55%. 30 years ago, boys outperformed girls
79
outside school explanations of female achievement - what impact has Feminism had?
since 1960s, group has challenged traditional stereotype of women's role (mother/housewife). Had considerable success in improving woman's rights + opportunities through changes in law. Reflected in media - TV programmes + magazines - highlight independence + self-esteem.
empowered girls to try harder at school + raised their expectations - get better jobs, gives greater potential
80
how did changes in family increase female achievement?
major changes since 1970s - increase in divorce rate. (1969 Divorce Reform Act - didn't have to prove adultery) + increase in no. of lone-parent families. Helped girls achieve as they were aware they had to be more independent + not rely on man to support them - tried harder. Single mothers important role models - motivated to do well in school if see mothers struggle
81
how did changes in women's employment increase female achievement?
1970 Equal Pay Act, 1975 Sex Discrimination Act - illegal to underpay women less + outlawed sex discrimination. Growth of service sector jobs + flexible part-time work created greater opportunities for women in workplace. Breaking through "glass ceiling" - achieving good pay. Provided greater incentive for girls to work harder at school - realised there's an end-product to school work e.g., high-level jobs
82
how did girl's changing attitudes increase female achievement?
```
family + employment are producing changes in girls' ambitions - Sue Sharpe (1994) = compared results of interviews she'd conducted with girls in 70s + 90s. Findings show a major shift in attitudes + aspirations towards school work + careers.
1970s = no clue what they wanted to do, mainly secretary/stewardess
90s = more independent, realised they don't need to get married.
Becky Francis (2001) = asked girls about career ambitions, most had high expectations + very few saw future in traditional jobs
```
83
how can outside school explanations be used as evaluation?
```
class differences in how far girls ambitions have changed = some wc girls continue to have gender-stereotyped aspirations for marriage/children + expected to go into traditional low-paid work
Diane Reay (1998) argues = reflects reality of girls' class position. Limited aspirations reflect limited job opps they perceive as available to them. Traditional gender identity (esp. being in couple) is attainable + provides status
Biggart (2002) = found wc girls were more likely to face underpaid position in labour market + see motherhood as only option for future. See less point in achieving in education - most low aspiring wc girls in Fuller's study weren't interested in staying on at school + showed desire for low-paid jobs
```
84
inside school explanations for female achievement - what are Equal Opportunities Policies?
Jo Boaler (1998) - sees impact of equal opportunities as key reason for changes in girls' achievement. Many barriers have been removed + schooling more meritocratic - girls who work harder than boys achieve more
85
what is GIST/WISE?
Girls Into Science + Technology/Women In Science + Engineering = designed to encourage female students to choose these subjects - arranging visits for female scientists to act as positive role models. Develop curriculum materials that reflect female interests
86
what is the aim of Single Sex Classes?
provides positive role models - science teacher has to be female. Allows girls to answer Qs without dominance of boys. Increase female confidence + more positive attitude towards science
87
how did GCSEs raise female achievement?
favoured females - coursework was introduced Oral assessments favour female skills. Combined science - good as strong biology grade made overall grade better
88
how did positive role models in school raise female achievement?
increase in no. of female teachers + head teachers. women teachers are likely to be important role models for girls' educational achievement as teachers need to take lengthy education. Argued primary schools are feminised - nearly all female staff. However, some argue that headteachers are predominantly male (even in primarys) - model for boys
89
how has teacher attention raised female achievement?
Dale Spender (1983) = found teachers spend more time interacting with boys than with girls. However, Jane + Peter French (1993) - found amount of attention teachers paid to boys + girls for academic reasons was similar. Boys attracted more time as teachers needed to manage behaviour more
90
what did Francis and Swann find?
```
Francis (2001) = whilst boys got more attention, disciplined more harshly + felt picked on by teachers - had lower expectations of them
Swann (1998) = differences in communication styles. Boys dominate whole-class discussions, girls prefer group work + better at listening. Explain why teachers respond positively to girls - self-fulfilling prophecy. Successful interactions w/ girls lead to increased self-esteem + achievement levels
```
91
how did changing stereotypes in curriculum raise female achievement?
Loban (1974) - carried out quantitative content analysis of primary school reading schemes. Found evidence of gender stereotyping. However, since 1980s Weiner (1995) - many stereotypes have been challenged + removed from learning materials. More positive images of what women can do
92
how did selection and league tables raise female achievement?
David Jackson (1998) - introduction of league tables has improved opportunities for girls - high achieving girls - more attractive to schools rather than low-achieving boys. Boys suffer from behavioural difficulties + 4 times more likely to be excluded
93
what evaluation can be used for inside school explanations on female achievement?
Liberal feminists - celebrate progress made by girls at school
Radical feminists - critical view of progress. Sexual harassment of girls still continue in school, still more head teachers which are male
Women still under-reported in curriculum - Weiner (1993) = describes secondary school history curriculum as "woman-free zone"
94
identity, class + girls achievement evaluation. Why do wc girls achieve considerably less to mc girls?
There is a conflict with their working class feminine identities + values/ethos of the school
95
How did the Feminist Archer (2010) use symbolic capital to understand this?
symbolic capital = status + sense of self-worth girls can obtain from others. Diff to school values - wc girls underachieve. To achieve symbolic capital, girls adopted strategies:
Hyper-heterosexual feminine identities: wc girls spent considerable time, effort + money constructing glamourous/desirable heterosexual identities. Educational underachievement - spend more time trying to look good instead of being productive, neg labelled by teachers
Boyfriends: bought sc, but got in way of school work + lowered girls' aspirations. Incl. losing interest in going Uni, studying masc. subjects (science) + gaining prof career
Being loud: adopted loud feminine identities - outspoken + assertive. Educational underachievement - neg labels, trouble w/school
wc faced with dilemma. Either gain sc from peers by conforming to hyper-heterosexual identity, or gain educational capital by rejecting wc identities + conforming to school's MC notions of respectable + ideal pupil
96
how did boys and reading lead to male underachievement?
gender gap in literacy + language skills of boys and girls. Parents spend less time reading to sons. Mothers do most of reading to young children - boys come to see reading as feminine activity. Leisure pursuit of boys is more likely to be active (playing football/computer games). Contrasts with bedroom culture of girls - helps to develop language + communication skills
97
how did feminisation of education lead to boys underachieving?
Sewell (2006) - education has become feminised - don't nurture masculine traits (competitiveness, leaderships). Reward qualities closely associated with girls (attentiveness + methodical work). Shortage of male primary school teachers - boys in family headed by single mother, lack positive male role model in early part of education
98
how did changing of male employment lead to male underachievement?
Crisis of masculinity - Mitsos + Browne (1998) = staff not as strict with boys (extend deadlines, tolerant of disruptive behaviour). Boys more disruptive -miss lesson time as sent out, gain street cred + peer group status by not working - anti-school subculture, decline in traditional male jobs. Boys lack motivation + underachieve, education associated as un-macho, likely to be excluded, crisis of masculinity - don't know what being masculine is anymore
99
what did Mac an Ghaill (1994) study find?
Crisis of masculinity:
The Macho Lads = working hard at school wasn't an option - late to lessons, don't do homework, not answering teachers.
The Real Englishmen = engaged in effortless achievement - rejected work ethic
100
what do Feminists and Interactions say about male underachievement?
```
Feminists = gender differences due to women realising their worth
Interactionists = gender differences due to labelling + self-fulfilling prophecy
```
101
what is the main cause of male underachievement?
lack of male role models in both home + school. 1.5 million female headed single parent families in UK
Yougov (2007) = 14% primary school teachers - male. 39% 8-11 year old boys have no lessons with male teacher. Presence of male teacher made them behave better, 42% said it made them work harder
102
what is another cause of male underachievement linked to primary schools?
culture of primary schools - feminised, more female teachers. Boys underachieve as female teachers can't control their behaviour.
103
why does Barbara Read (2008) disagree that female teachers can't control boys?
she identifies 2 types of language/discourse used by teachers:
Disciplinarian discourse = teacher's authority made explicit by use of shouting + sarcasm (male teach)
Liberal discourse = teacher's authority implicit + talks to students as if they're adults - expects them to be well-behaved/respectful (female teach)
However, in her research of 51 primary school teachers (25 m + 26 f) - majority of primary school teachers (both f + m) used disciplinarian discourse. Disproves claim of culture of primary schools have become feminised
104
what did Malcom Haase (2008) argue?
although women make up majority of female primary teachers, it is better to think of primary schools as a "masculinised educational structure that is numerically dominated by women."
105
what evaluation can be used for gender differences?
```
though boys are behind girls - important to realise performance of both sexes has improved
gap between boys + girls isn't as significant as gap between ethnic groups + social classes. DFEs (2007) - class gap at GCSE is 3x wider than gender gap
In order to understand gender differences, important to take into account class + ethnicity - gender gap between African/Caribbean pupils is far higher than any other ethnic group
```
106
gender + subject choice: what do boys' subjects + girls' subjects consist of?
```
boys = based on logic instead of emotion (computing, physics)
girls = literature + emotions
```
107
how does early socialisation link to gender + subject choice?
```
Fiona Norman (1988) = from an early age, boys + girls are given different toys + encouraged to do diff activities. Parents reward boys for being active + girls for being passive. Continues in school - teachers tell boys to be tough + show initiative, girls - quiet, neat, not noisy.
Murphy + Elwood (1998) = leads to different subject choices - boys read hobby books + info texts at home - prefer science
```
108
how do gender domains link to gender + subject choice?
Naima Brown + Carol Ross (1991) - gender domains (tasks + activities that boys/girls see as male/female territory) are shaped by early socialisation. Girls more confident in carrying out tasks in school which fit gender domain. Boys happier when carrying out mathematical tasks on cars, girls prefer maths tasks on food + nutrition. Activities - male domain = football, sport. Activities - female domain = drawing, baking, gymnastics
109
how do gendered subject images link to gender + subject choice?
some subjects seen as boy/girl subjects - effects which sex chooses it. Science - boys due to more science teachers + textbooks often drawn on boys' interests rather than girls' interests and experiences. E.g., boys don't take computer science as non-engaging activity - don't need to debate
110
how does peer pressure link to gender + subject choice?
boys/girls apply pressure to individual if they choose subject that doesn't fit gender domain. Carrie Paetcher (1998) - pupils see sport as male gender domain - girls who are sporty have to cope w/ image that contradicts female stereotype. Explains why girls don't do sport. Reinforced by Alison Dewar's study of American college students - male students call girls "lesbian/butch" if appeared more interested in sport than boys
111
how does gendered career opportunities link to gender + subject choice?
employment is highly gendered - clerical work + nursing - female jobs. Building + plumbing - male occupations. Influences what is seen as acceptable jobs for boys + girls - impacts what subjects are chosen at school/college. Health + social care taken by girls - leads to job in nursing
112
how does verbal abuse link to gender identities in education?
Connell calls "a rich vocabulary of abuse" - dominant gender + sexual identities are reinforced. Boys use name calling to put girls down - "slags" (sexually available) "drags" (if not). Paetcher sees it as the same "gay polices" sexual identities. Andrew Parker - boy were labelled gay if friends w/ girls. Lee + Paetcher - labels don't relate to sexual behaviour
113
how do peer groups linked to gender identities in education?
use verbal abuse to reinforce definitions of masculinity. Epstein + Willis - boys in anti-school subcultures say boys who want to do well are gay. Mac + Ghaill - peer groups reproduce a range of different class-based masculine identities. Redman + Mac + Ghaill - dominant definition of masculine identity changes from macho lads in lower school to Real Englishmen by 6th form
114
how do teachers + discipline link to gender identities in education?
Chris Haywood + Martin Mac + Ghaill (1996) - male teachers told boys off for behaving like girls - teachers teased them for getting lower marks than girls. Ignored boys' verbal abuse to girls + blamed girls for it. Sue Askew + Carl Ross (1988) - male teachers reinforce ideas about gender e.g., come into rescue female teacher from disruptive pupil - shows they can't cope
115
how does male gaze link to gender identities in education?
Mac + Ghaill - the way pupils control other's identities is the male gaze (male pupils + teachers look girls up + down, seeing them as sexual objects, judging appearance). See it as form of surveillance as dominant heterosexual masculinity is reinforced. This is how boys prove masculinity to friends, if they don't - labelled as gay
116
how do double standards link to gender identities in education?
exists when we apply one set of moral standards to 1 group, but different to another group. Sue Lees (1993) - boys boast about sexual things, girls get called slags if she has steady boyfriend. Approved of by male peers, ignored by male teachers. Feminists see this as example of patriarchal ideology
117
ethnic inequalities in educational achievement - what do statistics show?
Chinese (74.4% achieving 5+ grades at A*-C) Indian (72.9), White + Asian (67.2) achieve the best compared to Gypsy/Rome (8.2) + Traveller (14) - considerable difference. White British is in the middle (56.4)
118
outside explanations - how has cultural deprivation led to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
Language - cultural dep theorists see linguistic skills as major cause for ethnic minorities. Bereiter + Englemann - language spoken by low-income black American families - inadequate for educational success (ungrammatical, disjointed, no abstract ideas). Children who don't speak English at home may underachieve (don't understand language, so will struggle. Different teaching styles in different countries) - Pakistani + Bangladeshi families.
119
what evaluation can be used for the cultural dep argument?
```
Swann Report (1985) - language not a major factor in underachievement.
Gillborn + Mizra (2000) - Indian pupils do very well despite not having English as home language
```
120
how do attitudes + values lead to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
lack of motivation - major cause of failure for black children. Some black children are socialised into subculture that instils fatalistic (believing that what ever will be will be, can't change it) + present-time orientated (focused on now rather than long term goals) - Barry Sugarman used this to talk about cultural dep. Leaves them ill equipped for educational success
121
how do family structure + parental support lead to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
some ethnic groups - family is aspirational + motivating force. Other ethnic groups - family structure contributes to educational underachievement. New Rights theorists - Charles Murray = high rate of lone parenthood + lack of male role model leads to underachievement for some minorities. Roger Scruton (1986) - low achievement of some minorities caused by failure to embrace mainstream British culture
122
what evaluation can be used for outside explanations linked to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
Tony Sewell = not absence of fathers as role models that leads to black boys underachieving, but the problem is a lack of fatherly nurturing or tough love - firm, fairness, respect, non-abusive discipline
Turn to street gangs of other fatherless boys - offers black boys a sense of loyalty + love. Presents a media-inspired role anti-black school masculinity - subject to powerful anti-educational peer group pressure. Sewell interviewed boys - any black boy who did well at school was viewed as sus, seen as selling out to white establishment. Black students (nurtured through MTV) do worse than Asians (pressurised to do schoolwork) due to cultural differences in socialisation + attitudes towards education
Critical race theorists - Gillborn = it's not peer pressure that leads to underachievement - institutional racism within education system causes it
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what did Daniel Moynihan (1965) study?
research on black families. Many are headed by lone mother, which leads to their children being deprived of adequate care. This is because mother struggles financially - no male breadwinner. Father's absence means boys lack adequate role model of male achievement
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what did Ken Pryce research?
difference between Black + Asian families - Asian culture - resistant to racism + experience of colonialism claims that Asian pupils are higher achievers due to their culture being more resistant to racism - greater sense of self-worth. Black-Caribbean culture - less cohesive + less resistant to racism. Leads to black pupils having low self-esteem + underachieving.
Most research is focused on Black + Asian family structures as possible causes of differences in educational achievement.
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what did Ruth Lupton (2004) study?
White working class pupils underachieve + have low aspirations. studied 4 wc schools. 2 white, 1 Pakistani + other from ethnic mixed community. Schools which were mainly white reported poorer levels of behaviour + negative attitude towards education from white wc parents (though had fewer pupils on FSM). Gillian Evans (2006) - street culture in white wc areas is brutal - young people have to know how to withstand intimidation by intimidating others
126
what are the strengths of the cultural deprivation argument?
explanation has brought about compensatory educational policies e,g, Operation Head Start to help children with cultural deficit
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what are the weaknesses of the cultural dep argument?
Driver (1977) = criticises cultural deprivation theory for ignoring fact that black Caribbean families are far from dysfunctional - provide positive role model for girls
Lawrence (1982) = criticises Pryce's view that black families are culturally weak - argues that underachievement is due to racism in society
Keddie = sees cultural deprivation theory as flawed - it's victim-blaming. Argues ethnic minority children are culturally different rather than culturally deprived
128
how is social class linked to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
some ethnic minorities more likely to suffer material deprivation due to poverty - Pakistanis + Bangladeshis - 3x more likely than Whites to be in poorest 5th of population. Unemployment - 3x higher for African + Bangladeshi/Pakistani people than Whites
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what are the problems of material deprivation?
can't afford resources (laptops - essential for homework/online learning), poor diet, poor housing (damp housing - illness, time off school) lack of transport to school
130
how does racism in wider society lead to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
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John Rex (1986) = racial discrimination worsens poverty faced by ethnic minorities. Housing - forced into substandard accommodation
Mike Noon (1993) = deliberate discrimination in workplace. He sent identical pairs of letters of enquiry about future employment - 1 called Evans and other called Patel with same qualifications + experience. Companies were more encouraging to Evans enquiry
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131
inside school explanations - why do Interactionists believe these lead to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
Educational failure/success is determined by racist (if unintentional) hidden curriculum. Aspects of hidden curriculum include ethnocentric curriculum, Assessment, access to opps, New IQism etc.
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how has the ethnocentric curriculum led to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
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looking at things from a particular cultural background. Troyna + Williams (1986) - describe curriculum in British schools as ethnocentric - gives priority to white culture + language.
Bernard Coard (2005) - ethnocentric curric has effect of alienating some ethnic minority students + lowering commitment/motivation to school. British curriculum - Shakespeare, WW2, Beethoven, Dickens, white poets, Mozart
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133
what evaluation can be used for ethnocentric curriculum?
limited evidence on impact of hidden curriculum - ignores Asian culture, but Chinese + Indian pupils' achievement is above average
134
How has assessment led to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
Gillborn (2008) = helps to validate dominant culture's superiority. Black children achieve as group - assessment changed. Primary schools used baseline assessments which tested pupils when they started school. Changed to foundation stage profile in 2003 - black pupils did worse than white as assessment was based on teacher judgement at end of year - stereotyping
135
How did access to opportunities lead to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
Gifted and Talented Programme - meet needs of able students in inner city schools. Gillborn (2008) - official stats show white pupils are 2x as likely as Black/Caribbean pupils to be identified as gifted/talented + 5x more likely
than Black Africans. Tikly et al (2006) - black pupils more likely to be placed in lower tier GCSE exams
136
how did New IQism lead to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
Gillborn - teachers make false assumptions about pupil's ability/potential. Secondary schools - use old style IQ tests to allocate pupils to different streams upon entry to school - black pupils disadvantaged, underperform in culturally biased IQ tests + potential is overlooked. Go in lower groups - teachers view as lacking ability to do well in future
137
why have Gillborn's ideas been criticised?
Focuses too much on internal factors causing underachievement of black boys. Sewell says we need to focus on external factors - anti school attitudes created by peer groups due to absence of nurturing father figure
138
how can model minorities counteract that there are ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
High performance of Indian + Chinese pupils undermines arguments of institutional racism (described as model minorities). However, Gillborn counters this by arguing existence of model minorities makes system appear fair - makes it easier to blame other minorities for their failure
138
how can model minorities counteract that there are ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
High performance of Indian + Chinese pupils undermines arguments of institutional racism - they've been described as model minorities. Gillborn counters criticism by arguing existence of model minorities makes system appear fair - makes it easier to blame other minorities for their failure
139
How does institutional racism lead to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
Critical race theory - sees racism as ingrained feature of society. Racism isn't intentional act of individual, existing on institutional level. Roithmayr (2003) - IR is locked-in inequality - scale of historical racism is so large, no need to be conscious of discriminating. Troyna + Williams - need to go beyond individual racism - look at institutional racism (way discrimination is built into ways schools + colleges operate). Ethnocentric curriculum - shows racial bias in what is taught. Richard Hatcher (1996) - governing bodies gave little priority to racist incidences in school
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How did labelling + teacher racism lead to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
Gillborn + Youdell (2000) = teachers quicker to discipline black pupils than others for same behaviour. Teachers have racialised expectations of black pupils - more disruptive, challenge to authority. Conflict between white teachers + black pupils caused by racial stereotypes from teachers instead of pupil behaviour
141
What did Jenny Bourne (1994) say about ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
schools see black boys as threat and label them negatively - leads to exclusion
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what did Foster (1990) say about ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
teacher's stereotypes of black pupils as badly behaved - result in being placed in lower ability groups. Streaming/setting based on stereotypes - self-fulfilling prophecy of underachievement
143
What did Cecil Wright (1992) study?
Studied Asian pupils. Teachers held ethnocentric views, believed British culture was superior - led to teachers assuming Asian pupils had poor grasp of English language, left out of classroom discussions. Felt isolated in lessons when teachers mispronounced names + expressed disapproval of culture. Not seen as threat like black pupils, but a problem they could ignore.
144
how do pupil subcultures link to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
negatively labelling led to working class forming anti-school subcultures. Research on ethnicity + subcultures found this to be too simplistic - some pupils anti-school but pro-education
145
What did Mary Fuller (1984) study?
black girls in London comprehensive - anti-school but pro education - girls channelled anger about being labelled into educational success, didn't seek approval of teachers, friends with black girls in lower streams, showed deliberate lack of concern for school routines - highlights pupils can succeed if refuse to conform - labels don't always lead to failure
146
what did Martin Mac an Ghaill (1992) study?
Black + Asian 6th formers - students labelled negatively by teachers didn't accept it. How they responded depended on factors e.g. ethnic group, gender + nature of former schools. Some girls attended all-girls school, allowed them to have academic commitment + helped overcome labels at college
147
What did Heidi Mirza (1992) study?
3 types of teacher racism:
1. colour blind teachers - believe all pupils are equal but in practice allow racism to go unchallenged
2. liberal chauvinists - teachers who believe black pupils are culturally deprived - low expectations
3. overt racists - teachers who believe black pupils are inferior + actively discriminate against them. Girls tried to avoid attitudes by being picky about which staff they asked for help, getting on work without taking part + not choosing certain options - strategy unsuccessful - restricted opportunities
148
What did Tony Sewell study linked to ethnicity?
4 ways boys responded to racism:
Rebels = most visible + influential group. Small minority of black groups, often excluded, rejected goals/rules of school, conformed to stereotype of black macho lad, believed black masculinity equates to sexual experience
Conformists = largest group, keen to succeed, accepted school's goals + had friends from different ethnic groups, anxious to avoid being stereotyped by teachers/peers
Retreatists = tiny minority of isolated individuals who were disconnected from school + black subcultures - despised by rebels
Innovators = 2nd largest group, pro-education, anti-school, value success, didn't seek approval of teachers + conformed only to school work. Distanced from conformists + allowed them to maintain credibility with rebels whilst staying positive about academic achievement
149
how did selection + segregation lead to class inequalities in educational achievement?
Gillborn (1997) - marketisation gives schools greater power to select students - puts ethnic minorities at disadvantage. Commission for Racial Inequality (1993) identified racism within admission procedures of schools - children in eth minorities more likely to end up at unpopular schools. Some reasons for this incl. racial bias in: interviews for schools places, reports from primary schools that stereotype minority pupils, lack of info/application forms in minority language, ethnic minority parents unaware of how waiting system works + importance of deadlines
150
how do pupil identities lead to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
Archer (2008) - teachers define ethnic minority pupil identities as lacking favoured identity of ideal pupil:
Ideal pupil identity = white, middle class, masculine identity, "normal" sexuality, pupils seen as achieving in right way - natural ability + initiative
Pathologised pupil identity = Asian, deserving poor, feminised identity, asexual/oppressed sexuality, plodding, conformist, culture-bound, over-achiever - through hard work
Demonised pupil identity = black/white, working class, hyper-sexualised identity, unintelligent, peer-led, culturally deprived underachiever
151
how did stereotypes for Chinese students lead to ethnic inequalities in educational achievement?
Archer + Francis - "negative-positive" stereotypes for Chinese students. Achieved success in wrong way - hard working, passive conformism instead of natural ability, never become ideal pupil
152
How do teachers view Chinese families?
Tight/close, used this to explain girls' passivity. South Asian - girls are victims of family situations
153
what are the strengths of inside school explanations?
explanations highlighted important implications for ways teachers should be trained to avoid negative labelling + hold high expectations for all students
Explanations are supported by number of research studies - made use of qualitative methods e.g. observation + produced valid findings
154
what are the weaknesses of inside school explanations?
racism in schools can't be complete explanation - Indian + Chinese students experience racism yet achieve high grades. Number of schools have adopted multicultural/anti racist policies that have reduced level of racism inside schools
155
what is the general critical point for inside school explanations (ethnic differences)
In order to understand ethnic differences in educational achievement, also need to look at social class and gender. Paul Connolly (1998) - teachers saw black boys as disruptive underachievers + controlled them by more punishing/pushing them to do sport. On other hand, Asian boys - passive conformists, when they misbehaved were seen as silly + unthreatening
156
what is multicultural education?
policy that recognises + values minority cultures and includes them in curriculum
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what are assimilation policies?
aimed at trying to get ethnic minorities to fit in with mainstream British culture
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what do Postmodernists say about ethnic differences in education?
believes that education is more diverse due to globalisation and teachers need to take into account all different learning styles - also need to look at other factors e.g. class, gender, sexuality
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Globalisation + Education - what global companies are involved in the curriculum?
Pearson - high-stake tests for New York city schools. Has 5-year contract worth £138m to provide tests for schools in Texas + sets tests across other states.
Edexcel in UK = run for profit (becomes motive), partner with other companies (Heinemann books), Pearson makes sat tests, trying to create new school - computer education
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how are globalisation and multiculturalism within curriculum linked?
Increasing migration - education more multicultural. All schools teach about 6 world religions in RE, many faith schools in UK serving Muslim + Jewish students, assimilation policies introduced to cater for increasing number of Polish children entering education
161
how are global IT companies and classroom technology linked?
IT companies e.g., Apple/Google involved in writing curriculums + online learning materials for governments around world. Education shaped by transnational corporations, who make profit out of providing service to gov. - IPads, smartboards in classroom
162
what is Cola-isation?
Companies + brands infiltrate schools. Do this because if they get brand loyalty young, it will mean loyal customers for long time. Makes product more legitimate as schools are trustworthy
163
what impact has globalisation had on higher education?
increased competition from abroad, British students expected to stay longer in education. Led to most unskilled factory jobs being moved abroad - British workers need to be more educated to get a better job. Higher education means more students experience higher education - better qualified than parents
164
how are globalisation and educational policy (free schools and marketisation) linked?
Interconnected world - Postmodernism, choice e.g. marketisation, parentocracy - more choice of schools. Countries (Sweden) impacted education system in UK. Free schools originally set up in Sweden, set up by groups of parents, teachers, charities, businesses, unis, trusts, religious/voluntary groups. Funded directly by central gov - run by education provider - org. brought in by group setting up school. Established as academies - independent from local authorities, exempt from teaching national curriculum, increased control over teacher's pay, conditions/length of school day
165
how is educational policies linked to globalisation?
Educational policy is influenced by performance of other countries - Pisa statistics - monitor how well education system is doing compared to other countries
166
what do New Right say about educational policy?
Marketisation, enterprise, culture, supply + demand, parental choice
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what do Marxists, Postmodernists and Feminists say about educational policy?
Marxists - critical of marketisation, in favour of comprehensive schools
Post - individual choice, marketisation, life-long learning, globalisation
Feminists = gender equality
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what concepts are associated with educational policy?
marketisation, parentocracy, equal opportunities, A-C economy, cream skimming/silt shifting, educational triage, privileged/semi skilled + disconnected local choosers, compensatory educational policies (bridges inequality), fragmented centralism, cola-isation, social inclusion, assimilation, privatisation, ethnocentric
169
What policies are linked to educational underachievement of working class students?
Educational Policy Areas - upgraded to Educational Action Zones, Sure Start - ensure children get right start to school life, comprehensive schools - attempt to create equality for wc students. Educational Maintenance Allowance - replaced by bursaries, free school meals, National Literacy Strategy, City Academies, Pupil Premium, Aim Higher
170
what policies are linked to educational underachievement of male students?
Dad's and Sons campaign - encouraging dads to get more involved in learning of sons (positive role model), Equality Act 2010 - everyone treated equally, Reading Champions - medals at primary level, Raising Boys and Achievement Scheme - focus resources on male achievement, Playing for Success - linking football associations to education
171
what policies are linked to educational underachievement of particular ethnic minority groups?
Assimilation policies - teaching English as additional language, National Curriculum - learn one set curriculum ethnocentric, Multi-cultural education policies - encourage schools to celebrate differences (Black History week), Social Inclusion Initiatives - monitoring of exam results + exclusion rates by ethnicity, Amending Race Relations Act (1975) - stop racial discrimination, creation of voluntary Saturday Schools, Prevent Strategy - schools look out for radicalisation of young people due to bonking in London - policy affects achievement as being targeted
172
what are the criticisms of free schools meals and pupil premium?
giving money to schools doesn't actually mean the school will directly spend on these students - could spend it on laptops for all students
173
what are the overall views of Functionalists?
look at society in positive way, institutions have a positive role in society. Structural theorists - society as a whole (macro). The way society is structured has an impact on your behaviour (e.g., schools). Look at how education system plays a part in society. Research methods - Positivists
174
what does Durkheim believe about the socialisation role of education?
education system transmits values that create social solidarity - like society in miniature. Prepares you for wider life, makes you feel connected with one another + apart of society due to shared experiences
175
what does Parsons say about education system?
Universalistic rules. Schools teach the ideas of meritocracy - by experiencing school, society is based on achieved status (everyone is rewarded if work hard)
176
what do Davis + Moore believe about allocation role of education?
schools help to sift + sort people into the correct jobs. Rewarded for staying in for longer e.g., better pay.
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what do Functionalists believe about vocational role of education?
schools provide work related/specialist skills. Duncant - Human capital theory - schools invest in you to make you productive
178
what are the weaknesses of the Functionalist view on education?
ignores negative aspects of school life (anti-school behaviour, bullying). Have an over-socialised view of humans. There isn't a meritocracy - schools reinforce inequality
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what are the overall views of Marxists?
critical theorists, structural theory, macro view, critical view of society. Research methods depends on type of Marxist. Look at link between education + economy - capitalist society
180
what does Althusser believe about socialisation role of education?
ISA. Education system reproduces class inequality + legitimates inequality. Transmits ideas that reproduce inequality, passes on negative values that stop social change - makes wc passive
181
what do Bowles + Gintis believe about allocation role in education?
Correspondence principle, myth of meritocracy. Schools reproduce class structure by allocating working class students into working class jobs. Caused by different schools you go to, down to streaming + setting inside schools (wc students - bottom sets)
182
what do Marxists believe about vocational role in education?
schools prepare working class students for working class jobs. Willis - learning to labour - reject values of school also has an impact. Boredom students feel at school represents boredom in workplace
183
what are the weaknesses of Marxist views on education?
ignores aspect of social mobility. Willis - criticise structural Marxists view that wc students aren't passive, they rebel. Ignores aspect of ethnicity + focuses too much on social class (too reductionist)
184
what do Postmodernists believe about education?
Diversity of education, need to look at range of factors for educational underachievement e.g., class, gender and ethnicity
185
what do Feminists believe about education system?
schools create gender divisions + reinforce gender roles - subject choice + inequalities based on gender
186
what do Interactionists believe about education?
Focus on inside school explanations. Labelling - Becker. Anti-school subcultures, streaming, setting
