Education Flashcards
What percentage of British children go to private schools
7
What percentage of Oxford and Cambridge entrants come from private schools
Nearly 50%
What are internal factors
Factors within schools and the education system
What are external factors
Factors outside the education system
What does cultural deprivation mean
To be inadequately socialised, lacking cultural equipment needed to do well in school
Is cultural deprivation internal or external
External
What are the subcategories of cultural deprivation in external class achievement
Language
Parents education
Working class subculture
Compensatory education
What did Hubbs-tait et al find about language in class differences
Parents who use elaborate language improve their cognitive abilities
What did Feinstein find about language in class differences
Educated parents are more likely to use praise -encouraging attainment
What did Bernstein find about language in class differences
The difference between working class and middle class is the language that influences achievement through speech codes
What speech codes did Bernstein find for class achievement and what is their info
Restricted code: used by working class, limited and grammatically simple. Context bound, speaker assumes the listener shares the same experience Elaborated code:used by middle class,context free, advantages middle class pupils (used by teachers, in textbooks, exams etc)
What did Douglas find out about parents education in class achievement
Working class parents place less value on education, Results in less ambition for children, giving them less encouragement Lack of parental interest reflects sub cultural values of WC
What did Feinstein find about parents education in class achievement
Parents own education is most important factor affecting children’s achievement
What is less educated parents parenting style marked by
Less educated parents parenting style is marked by harsh or inconsistent discipline that emphasises ‘doing as your told’ and ‘behaving yourself’
What is more educated parents style marked by
More aware of what their children need to be educationally successful
What did Bernstein and young find about parents education in class achievement
Middle class mothers are more likely to buy educational toys, books and games to encourage reasoning skills and stimulate intellectual development
What 4 things did sugarman identify about working class subcultures in class achievement
- Fatalism:belief in fate, destined to not do well, cannot change position
- collectivism:values of the group are more important than success; loyalty
- immediate gratification:seeking pleasure without sacrifice
- present time orientation: the present is more important than the future
What does compensatory education aim to do
Aims to tackle the problem of cultural deprivation by providing extra resources to schools and communities deprived areas
What is operation head start, and an example of it
In the USA, a scheme for pre-school education in poorer areas in the 1960s
An example is Sesame Street, providing skills such as punctuality, numeracy and literacy
What scheme is there in the uk for compensatory education
Sure Start,
aimed at pre school children and their parents
Who said cultural deprivation is a myth
Nell Keddie
What did Nell Keddie say about cultural deprivation being a myth
- it’s a victim blaming explanation
- dismisses the idea that failure at school is bc of being from a ‘culturally deprived background’ actually means a child is just ‘culturally different’
- they fail bc they are disadvantaged by an education system W middle class values
What did Troyna and Williams say about cultural deprivation being a myth
The problem is not the child’s language but the way the school deals with it in the ‘speech hierarchy’
What are the material deprivation factors that contribute to external class achievement
Housing
Diet and health
Financial support and costs of education
Fear of debt
What does material deprivation mean
To live in poverty and lack of WC wages being large enough to afford necessities
How is housing related to class differences in achievement
- overcrowding=no space to study, get a good nights sleep
- can hinder development by lack of space
- disrupted accommodation=temporary housing effects flow of education
- poor housing=can effect health and welfare as children are more likely to be ill or have accidents etc. Leads to absenteeism
What did Howard say about diet and health in relation to class differences in achievement
Poorer homes provide lower intakes of vitamins, nutrients and energy, can result in absence from school and poor concentration
What did Wilkinson say about diet and health in relation to class and achievement
Higher rates of hyperactivity and anxiety in 10 year olds from poor homes
What did Machin say about diet and health in relation to class and achievement
They’re more likely to fight or misbehave
Why is financial support and costs of education relevant to external class achievement
Children have to miss out on equipment and experiences that may benefit their education
What did Bull say about financial support and costs of education
Refers to children having to miss out on equipment and experiences that may benefit their education as ‘the costs of free schooling’
What does Tanner say about financial support and costs of education
The costs of books, computers,uniforms,transport,sport,music, and art, place a heavy burden on poorer families
What does Flaherty say about financial support and costs of education
Fear of stigmatisation explains why 20% of eligible students for free school means do not uptake them
What does Smith and Noble say about financial support and costs of education
Poverty acts as a barrier to learning due to inability to afford to go to good schools, hence a poorer quality schooling
Why is fear of debt a factor in external class achievement
University debt, and costs of tuition fees, books and living expenses. Attitudes towards debt may deter WC students from going to university
What does Callander and Jackson say about fear of debt
WC students are more debt adverse (see it negatively). They saw the costs as outweighing the benefits of going to university
Is external reasons for class achievement due to cultural or material factors (which is more important) in external class achievement
Cultural, religious or political values of family can sustain a child’s motivation, despite poverty, so probably debate cultural
What did Feinstein say about whether cultural or material factors are more important about external class achievement
Educated parents make a positive contribution to a child’s achievement, regardless of their income (cultural)
What did Peter Mortimer and Geoff Whitty say about about whether cultural or material factors are more important about external class achievement
Material inequalities have the greatest effect on achievement
What did Robinson say about whether cultural or material factors were more important for external class achievement
Tackling child poverty would be the most effective way to boost achievement
What did Pierre Bourdieu discover (related to class and external achievement)
Both cultural and material factors contribute to educational achievement and are not separate but interrelated
What are the three types of capital
Cultural
Educational and economic
What is cultural capital
Refers to the knowledge, values, language, and tastes and abilities of the middle class,
What is the effect of cultural capital on the middle class
giving them an advantage in the education system as then it favours and transmits the dominant middle class culture
How are the working class affected by cultural capital
Working class children’s culture is devalued and their lack of cultural capital leads to exam failure, and responses like bunking, leaving early, and not trying
How are middle class children affected by educational and economic capital
Middle class children with cultural capital are better equipped to meet the demands of the school curriculum and gain qualifications. Wealthier parents convert their economic capital into educational capital by sending their children to private schools and paying for extra tuition
How did Alice Sullivan assess cultural capital
Used questionnaires across 465 pupils in 4 schools, she found that those who read complex fiction and watched serious TV had wider vocab, and were more likely to be successful at GCSEs
What did Alice Sullivan say about cultural capital in achievement
Cultural capital only accounted for part of the class difference, some pupils of different class W same cultural capital but middle class still did better. Conclusion=the greater resources and aspirations of the middle class explain the remainder of the class gap (in achievement)
What are the internal reasons for class achievement
Labelling
Self fulfilling prophecy
Pupil subcultures
Pupil class identity and the school
What does labelling mean
To attach a meaning or definition to someone
What did Becker say about labelling in internal class achievement
Interviewed 60 Chicago high school teachers and found that they judged pupils according to how closely they fit the ‘ideal pupil’ teachers saw students from MC backgrounds as closest to ideal and WC furthest from, they were considered badly behaved
What did Hempel-Jorgensen say about labelling in internal class differences
- In a largely working class primary school, discipline is a big problem, ideal pupil=passive
- in mainly middle class school they had few disciple problems,ideal pupil=defined by personality and academic ability
What did Dunne and Gazeley say about labelling in secondary schools about internal class differences
Schools persistency produce working class underachievement. Conducted interviews in 9 English state schools, where teachers normalised underachievement of WC, (fatalism). But with MC they believed they could overcome it. WC parents=labelled as uninterested MC parents=labelled as supportive. Setting extensions for MC, easier tests for WC
What did Rist say about the effects of labelling in primary schools in internal class differences
Studied an American kindergarten, found that teachers used info on children’s home lives and appeared to place them in different groups. Teachers decided fast learners=MC, w neat and clean appearance, showed them greatest encouragement. Other 2 groups seated far away, more likely to be WC, fewer choices and lower level books
What’s the process of a self fulfilling prophecy
Step 1:The teacher labels a student
Step 2:the teacher treats the pupil accordingly
Step 3:pupil internalises teachers expectations and this becomes part of their self image and self concept
What did Rosenthal and Jacobson say about teachers expectations in internal class differences
Told teachers they were gonna test ability of students, identifying spurters and those who are behind, not true. Randomly selected. Teachers beliefs about the pupils were affected by it, being more encouraging towards ‘spurters’
What is streaming
Streaming is when students are separated into different groups based on their ability, each group is taught separately. WC most likely in lower ones. Children are more or less likely to be placed where their teachers expect them to be.
What did Douglas say about streaming in internal class achievement
Children placed in lower streams at age 8 had suffered a decline in their IQ by age 11
What did Gillborn and Youdell say about streaming and the A-C economy in internal class achievement
Looked at how teachers use stereotypes to label students, league tables that show performance per year r to attract funding and pupils, the A-C economy is a system in which schools focus their time, effort and resources on to those pupils they see as having potential to get Cs and above
What did Gillborn and Youdell say about the educational triage in internal class achievement
Schools triage (sort) students into 3 categories
- those who can pass without assistance
- those w potential to be helped to get a grade C or above
- hopeless cases
What did Lacey say about pupil subcultures in internal class achievement
Concepts of differentiation and polarisation can be used to explain how pupil subcultures develop
What is differentiation
The process of teachers categorising pupils according to how they perceive their ability (e.g) streaming
Polarisation
The process where pupils respond to streaming by moving to one of two opposite poles
What are pro-school subcultures
Pupils placed in high streams tend to remain committed to the values of the school. They gain their status in an approved manner, through academic success.
What is an Anti school subculture
Those placed in lower streams suffer a loss of self esteem, school has undermined their self worth, label of failure causes them to search for further ways of gaining status
What did Stephen Ball say about Abolishing streaming in internal class achievement
He studied a comprehensive, in the process of banning streaming, when banding was abolished, the basis for pupils to polarise into subcultures was largely removed, and anti-school subcultures largely declined. Teachers, however kept categorising students based on their class. MC=positive label, then self fulfilling prophecy. So class inequalities can continue in schools even without influence of subculture and streaming
What has happened since Balls study of abolishing streaming and internal class achievement
Since his study, and the Education Reform Act in 1988, there has been a trend toward more streaming and a variety of schools which has created new opportunities for schools and teachers to treat pupils unequally based on class, gender and ethnicity
What’s the variety of pupil responses to subcultures identified by woods in internal class achievement
- Ingratiation:’teachers pet’
- Ritualism:going through the motions and staying out of trouble
- Retreatism:day dreaming and messing about
- Rebellion:outright rejection of everything the school stands for
What did John Furlong say about pupil resoponses to subcultures in internal class achievement
Many pupils are not committed permanently to any one response, may be between different types of response, acting dif in certain lessons or w certain teachers
Criticisms of labelling theory in internal class achievement
Accused of determinism by assuming that pupils who are labelled have no choice but to fulfil the prophecy, inevitably failing
What do Marxists criticise about labelling theory with internal class achievement
Labelling theory ignores the wider structures of power within which labelling takes place. Blames teachers for labelling pupils but fails to explain why they do
What is a Habitus
The ‘dispositions’ or learned, taken for granted ways of thinking, being and acting that are shared by a particular social class. Linked to Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital, if a class has MC habitus, advantages MC but WC regarded as inferior
What is symbolic capital
Recognised by the school, deemed to have worth or value
What is symbolic violence
By defining the WC and their tastes and lifestyle as inferior, symbolic violence reproduces the class culture and keeps WC in their place
What did Archer say about symbolic capital and symbolic violence in internal class achievement
WC pupils view education that in order to be educationally successful they would have to change how they talked and presented themselves. Educational success for WC means they’re ‘losing themselves’
What’s a Nike identity
Some WC pupils create a Nike identity because they are conscious that society and school looked down on them, Symbolic violence led to seeking alternative ways of creating self worth, with investing heavily in styles - e.g branded clothing
What do Nike identities do to schools
Created conflict with the schools dress code, reflecting schools WC habitus, teachers oppose street styles as showing bad taste or a threat. Pupils who adopted these identities risked being labelled as rebels
Nike identities also play a part in WC higher education rejection, bc it was ‘not for people like us’ and undesirable- doesn’t suit their preferred style or habitus
What did Archer say about Nike identities in internal school achievement
Some WC pupils reject the idea of higher education because they may choose self elimination or self exclusion from education, bc it’s not part of their identity
What did Ingram say about working class identity and educational success in internal class achievement
In a study of Catholic school boys in a deprived part of Belfast, half went to a grammar school, half went to local comprehensive. WC locality gave boys sense of belonging. WC communities place emphasis to ‘fit in’ particularly for the grammar boys who were influenced by their schools MC habitus. One student was made fun of for coming in in a tracksuit on mufti day=example of symbolic violence
What did Meg maguire say about working class identity and educational success in internal class achievement
In grammar school ‘the working class cultural capital of my childhood counted for nothing in this new setting’
What did Evans say about class identity and Self exclusion in internal class differences
A study of WC girls from a south London comprehensive, they were reluctant to apply to elite universities, ones that did felt a sense of hidden barriers. Only one in four of the girls wanted to move away to study.
What did Bourdieu say about class identity and self exclusion in internal class achievement
Many wc pupils think of places like oxbridge as ‘not for the likes of us’, coming from their habitus
What does Reay say about class identity and self exclusion in internal class achievement
Self exclusion form elite unis narrows the options for many WC pupils
What is the relationship between internal and external factors in class achievement
- WC pupils habitus formed outside school may conflict with schools MC habitus and lead to symbolic violence
- WC pupils restricted code=labelled as less able=self fulfilling prophecy
- what teachers believe about WC pupils home life produces underachievement
- poverty may lead to stigmatisation by peers
- wider external factors outside individual school may affect processes within it e.g streaming. GCSE league tables used to shut down failing schools=contributes to A-C economy
ETHNICITY
ETHNICITY
What did Lawson and Garrod say about ethnic groups
Ethnic groups are people who share a common history, customs, identity, as well as, in most cases, language, religion, and see themselves as a distinct unit
What are the statistics of ethnic achievement
- Chinese students have a higher GCSE performance over most other ethnicity and Gypsy Roma the least
- parental pressure and culture affects these statistics
- in Gypsy Roma and Traveller children, girls do better
- in every ethnic group MC children do better than WC
- white is close to average but WC do worse
Cultural deprivation and external ethnicity
Cultural deprivation sees the underachievement of some ethnic groups as the result of inadequate socialisation in the home
How are black families affected by intellectual and linguistic skills in external ethnic achievement
Many children from low income black families lack intellectual stimulation and enriching experiences leave them poorly equipped as they have not developed reasoning and problem solving
What did Beretier and Engelmann say about intellectual and linguistic skills in external ethnic achievement
The language used in black American families is inadequate for educational and success “ungrammatical disjointed and incapable of expressing abstract ideas”
What did Gillborn and Mirza say about intellectual and linguistic skills in external ethnic achievement
This isn’t always a big factor in poor education as Indian pupils do very well, despite always having English as a first language
Why is attitudes and values a factor of external ethnic achievement
motivation means most children are socialised into mainstream culture - installing ambition, competitiveness and willingness. Some black children born into subculture of ‘live for today’
Whats the relationship between cultural deprivation and dysfunctional families in external ethnicity
Cultural deprivation is the result of dysfunctional families
What did Daniel Moynihan say about family structure and parental support in external ethnicity
Many black families are headed by a lone mother so children have inadequate care bc of lack of ‘breadwinner’ creates a cycle of children becoming inadequate parents
What does Murray say about family structure and parental support in external ethnicity
High rate of lone parents and lack of positive male role models leads to underachievement of some minorities
What did Ken pryce say about family structure and parental support in external ethnicity
Asians are higher achievers as they are more resistant to racism-greater sense of self worth, black Caribbean culture is less cohesive, so low self esteem and underachievement, also argued slavery was culturally devastating for black people. They lost their language religion and entire family system
What did Sewell say about fathers in external ethnicity
It’s not the absence of fathers that leads to black boys underachieving, it’s lack of fatherly nurturing or ‘tough love’ resulting in black boys finding it hard to overcome emotional and behavioural difficulties
What did chris Arnot say about fathers in external ethnicity
Absence of nurturing father presents boys with a media inspired role of anti school, black masculinity- reinforced by things like rap lyrics and MTV videos
What did Sewell say about gangs and culture in external ethnicity
Biggest barrier for black boys is pressure from other boys and speaking standard English and trying at school, seen as selling out to the white establishment. Black boys need greater expectations placed on them to raise their aspirations
What did Gillborn say about the educational system in external ethnicity
It’s not due to peer pressure but institutional racism within the education system which produces the failure of a large number of black boys
What did Sewell say about Asian families in external ethnicity
Indian and Chinese pupils benefit from supportive families that have an ‘Asian work ethic’ and place a high value on education
What did Ruth Lupton say about Asian families in external ethnicity
Adult authority in Asian families is similar to the model that operates within schools. Respectful behaviour is expected of children which has a knock on effect of school, since parents are more likely to be supportive of school policies
What did Andrew McCulloch say about white working class families in external ethnicity
In a survey of 16000 pupils, minority pupils were more likely to aspire to go to uni than British pupils
What did Lupton say about white working class families in external ethnicity
White working class pupils low aspiration may be due to lack of parental support. In a study of four mainly WC schools, 2 mainly white, one mainly Pakistani, one diverse. Teachers reported poorer levels of behaviour and discipline in white WC schools, even tho having fewer children on FSM. Teachers blamed this on low levels of parental support and negative attitudes towards education
What did Gillian Evans say about white working class families say about external ethnicity
Street culture in white WC areas can be brutal, school can become place where power games are played out again, bringing disruption to pupils education.
What does Compensatory education aim to do in external ethnicity (including example)
Aims to tackle cultural deprivation. Operation head start in the USA was to compensate children for the cultural deficit they are said to suffer because of deprived backgrounds
How does Driver criticise cultural deprivation in external ethnicity
Cultural deprivation ignored positive effects of ethnicity on achievement. Shows black Caribbean family are far from dysfunctional, w positive role models.
How did Lawrence criticise cultural deprivation theory in external ethnicity
Challenges Pryces view and argued that Black pupils failure is bc of racism and not low self esteem
How did Keddie criticise cultural deprivation in external ethnicity
She argues that ethnic minority children are culturally different-not deprived. Is an example of victim blaming
Why do critics of cultural deprivation oppose compensatory education
They see it as an attempt to impose the dominant white culture on children who have a coherent culture of their own
What are the two alternatives to compensatory education
- Multi cultural education=a policy that recognises and values minority cultures and includes them in the curriculum
- anti racist education=a policy that challenges the prejudice and discrimination that exists in schools and wider society
What’s material deprivation
A lack of physical necessities that are seen as essential for today’s society
What did guy Palmer say about why ethnic minority pupils are more likely to suffer material deprivation in external ethnicity
- almost 50% of all minority children live in low income households, compared to 25% of white children
- minorities 2x as likely to be unemployed
- minorities 3x likely to be homeless
- almost half of Bangladeshi and Pakistani workers each paid under 7 pounds an hour
What are the reasons that ethnic minorities are at greater risk of material deprivation in external ethnicity
- many live in economically depressed areas w high unemployment and low wages
- cultural factors such as purdah in Muslim homes, prevents women going outside
- lack of language skills and foreign qualifications not recognised by uk employer
- asylum seekers may not be allowed work
- racial discrimination
Does class override ethnicity in external ethnicity
In 2011 86% of Chinese girls who received FSM had 5 or more high gcse grades.
65% of white gilts who were not receiving free school meals
What did Tariq Madood say about class overriding ethnicity (external)
While children from low income families generally did less well, the effects of low income were much less for other ethnic groups than for white pupils
What did David mason say about Racism in wider society
Discrimination is continuing and a persistent feature of the experience of Britain’s citizens of minority ethnic origin
What did John Rex say about racism in wider society
Ethnic minorities are more likely to be forced into substandard accommodation than white people in the same class
What did Wood say about racism in wider society
In a study of job applications with names from different ethnic backgrounds- only 1/16 ethnic minority applications were offered an interview against 1/9 applications
What did Gillborn and Mirza say about black boys school achievement over time
Black children were the highest achievers on entry to primary school but by GCSEs they had the worst results of any ethnic group
What did Steve strand say about free school meals and black pupils
Many black Caribbean boys not entitled to free school meals, especially the abler students, made significantly less progress than white pupils
Labelling and teacher racism in internal ethnicity
Teachers see black and Asian pupils as far from ideal. Black=disruptive Asians=passive. Negative labels may lead them to being treated differently and results in failure
What did Archer say about pupil identities in internal ethnicity
Teachers dominant discourse defines minorities identities as lacking favoured identity of ideal pupil. The ideal pupil identity, pathologised pupil identity and demonised identity
What did Gillborn and Youdel say about black pupils and discipline
Teachers were quicker to discipline black pupils than others for the same behaviour. Result of racialised expectations- teachers expect more problems bc they ‘threaten or challenge authority’. Conflict between white teachers and black students is stereotypes and not behaviour
What did Jenny Bourne say about black pupils and discipline
Schools see black boys as threat and label negatively. Leads to exclusion and then low levels of achievement.
What did Osler find about black boys and exclusion
Black students appear to suffer from more unrecorded unofficial exclusions and ‘internal exclusions’ where they are sent out of class.
What did Gillborn and Youdel say about black pupils and streaming
In the A-C economy teachers focus on high achievers (educational triage) negative labels on black students means more likely to be put in lower sets
What did Peter Foster say about black pupils and streaming
Negative teacher labels on black students, results in lower set streams, makes self fulfilling prophecy of underachievement
What did Cecile Wright say about Asian pupils in internal ethnicity
Study of multi ethnic primary school, Asians can be labelled negatively due to ethnocentric views. Assumed they had poor English, spoke to them simplistically etc. Asians also felt left out when they said their name wrong or disapproved of their customs. Teachers didn’t see them as a threat, but something to ignore. Particularly Asian girls were marginalised
Which identities did Louise Archer discover in ethnicity internal
- Ideal=white MC masculine natural ability
- pathologised=Asian, deserving poor, feminine , oppressed sexuality, ‘over achiever’ hard work rather than ability
- demonised=black or white WC hyper sexualised identity, unintelligent
What did Archer say about the identities she found in internal ethnicity
Minorities are more likely to be pathologised or demonised. Bc black pupils r seen as challenging. Asian girls likely to be seen as docile
What did Farza Shain say about pupil identities in internal ethnicity
When Asian girls challenge the stereotype, often dealt with more seriously than other pupils
What did Archer say about Chinese pupils in internal ethnicity
Teachers see them as homogenous passive quite and hardworking mass, girls are educational automations, boys are effeminate and subordinate
What did Archer and Francis say about Chinese pupils in internal ethnicity
Teachers view them w ‘negative positive stereotypes’ they achieved success the wrong way. Hard work not ability. Blame girls passivity on tight knit families. And wrongly label Chinese pupils as middle class. Success of minority is seen as overachievement
What did Fuller say about pupil responses and subcultures in internal ethnicity
Studied a group of black girls in year 11. High achievers. Beat their negative stereotypes. Didn’t seek approval. Only conformed as far as school work was concerned. Remained friends w girls in lower streams.
What did Mairtin Mac and Ghaill say about pupil responses in internal ethnicity
Study of black and Asian A level students, pupils responses to teacher labels depended on factors like their ethnic group and gender.
What did Mirza find about strategies for avoiding racism in internal ethnicity
Studied ambitious black girls, teachers discouraged it thru advice e.g careers and option choices
They were selective about their subjects and lessons, all not taught by racist teachers. It was unsuccessful bc it restricted their opportunities
What three types of teacher racism did Mirza identify
- Colour blind= all pupils are equal but let racism go unchallenged
- Liberal chauvinists=believe black pupils are cultural deprived and have low expectations
- overt racists=believe black is inferior and actively discriminate them
What did Sewell find about the variety of boys responses in internal ethnicity
- Rebels-most influential but minority
- conformists-largest group and keen to succeed
- retreatists-tiny minority, disconnected from school and subcultures
- innovators-second largest group, pro education but anti school, didn’t seek teacher approval
What did Sewell find about black boys conforming in internal ethnicity
Only a small minority conformed to the stereotypes of ‘black macho lad’ but most teachers saw all black boys this way, leading to negative attitudes and underachievement. Teachers racist stereotypes disadvantage black boys and leads to self-fulfilling prophecy, but external are more important in producing underachievement.
Evaluating labelling and pupil responses in internal ethnicity
There is a danger of seeing these stereotypes as product of teacher prejudices, rather than racism in education system.
What did Gillborn and Youdell say about evaluating labelling and pupil responses in internal ethnicity
The A-to-C economy leads to large numbers of black and WC pupils being placed in lower streams or entered for lower tier exams. Also danger of assuming once labelled, they automatically fall into a self fulfilling prophecy and fail.
What did Mizra say about evaluating labelling and pupil responses in internal ethnicity
Although pupils devise strategies to avoid teachers racism, these too can limit their opportunities.
What did Troyna and Williams say about instructional racism
To explain ethnic difference in achievement, we need to go beyond simply examining individual teacher racism and look at schools routinely and unconsciously discriminating against ethnic minorities.
What does individual racism result from
Prejudiced views of individual teachers and others.
What is the critical race theory
Stockley Carmichael and Charles Hamilton:institutional racism is less overt, more subtle, less identifiable in terms of specific individuals committing the acts… it originates in the operation of established and represented forces in society
What did Daria Roithmayr say about locked in equality in internal ethnicity
Institutional racism is a locked in inequality. The scale of historical discrimination is so large that there is no longer needs to be any conscious intent to discriminate, the inequality becomes self feeding.
What does Gillborn say about locked in inequality in internal ethnicity
Ethnic inequality is so deep rooted and so large that it is a practically inevitable feature of the education system
What does Gillborn say about marketisation and segregation in internal ethnicity
Because marketisation gives schools more scope to select pupils it allows negative stereotypes to influence decisions about school admissions
What did Moore and Davenport say about Marketisation and Segregation in internal ethnicity
Selection procedures lead to ethnic segregation with minority pupils failing to get into better secondary schools. Procedures favour white pupils.
What is the commission for racial equality
Ethnic minority children are more likely to end up in unpopular schools due to the following reasons:
- reports from primary schools stereotype minority pupils
- racist bias interviews for school places
- lack of info and application forms in minority languages
- ethnic minority parents are often unaware of how waiting list system works and the importance of deadlines
What is an ethnocentric curriculum
A curriculum that reflects the culture of the dominant culture only
What did Troyna and Williams say about languages literature and music in internal ethnicity
There’s not enough provisions for teaching Asian languages compared to European languages
What does Miriam David say about the curriculum in internal ethnicity
The national curriculum is ‘specifically British’ and largely ignores non European languages, literature, and music.
What did Ball say about the national curriculum in internal ethnicity
The national curriculum ignores ethnic diversity and promotes an attitude of ‘little englandism’, it recreates a mythical age of empire and past glories, whilst ignoring history of minority pupils
what did Bernard Coard say about the curriculum in internal ethnicity
Ethnocentric curriculum may produce underachievement e.g in history black people are presented as inferior and undermines black children’s self esteem and leads to their failure.
What did Maureen stone say about the curriculum in internal ethnicity
Black children in fact do not suffer from low self-esteem. Although the history of Asian pupils is often ignored, Indian and Chinese pupils are the highest achieving in the education system.
What did Gillborn say about assessments in internal ethnicity
Assessment processes are rigged to validate the dominant cultured superiority. If black children succeed as a group, the rules will change to re-engineer failure. In 2000 black children were the highest achievers. In 2003 new FSP had them ranked lower than whites in all 6 areas.
What did Sanders and Horn say about assessments in internal ethnicity
When more weighting was given to tasks assessed by teachers rather than exams, gaps between ethnicities widened.
What aim was the gifted and talented programme created with
The aim of meeting needs of abler students in inner city schools
What did Gillborn say about access to opportunities with the gifted and talented programme in internal ethnicity
Official statistics show whites are 2x as likely as black Caribbean’s to be identified as ‘gifted’
What did Tikley et al say about exam tiers in access to opportunity in internal ethnicity
In 30 schools, black students were more likely to be entered for lower exam tiers bc of lower streams. Can only get C at best
What did Steve strand say about access to opportunities in internal ethnicity
White-black achievement gap in maths and science tests at age 14. Result of black pupils being systematically under represented in entry to higher tier tests. Reflects teachers expectations, leading to SFP
What did Gillborn and Youdell say about the new IQism in internal ethnicity
Teachers have racialised expectations that black pupils would have more discipline problems. Students are set bc of disciplinary concerns and perception of their attitudes. They see potential as easily being measured and so can be put in correct stream. Schools r using IQ tests to allocate students.
What did Gillborn say about the new IQism in internal ethnicity
Race inequality is a constant and central feature of the education system. Racism is a fundamental defining characteristic of the educational system.
How does Sewell criticise Gillborn in black boys underachievement
Racism is not powerful enough to stop individuals from achieving. Need to focus on external factors, such as boys anti school attitudes, father roles, and peer group
What evidence of minorities criticise Gillborn
- Indian and Chinese students perform better than white majority
- how can institutional racism exist if these 2 minorities are high achieving
How does Gillborn criticise himself with model minorities
- argues model minorities merely conceals institutional racism by:
1. making the system appear fair-minorities high achieving
2. justifies failure of other minorities, e.g blacks fail bc they are unwilling to try
3. ignores that model minorities still suffer racism in school, e.g Chinese students experience same level as Black Caribbean’s
What does Gillian Evans say about ethnicity, class and gender
To fully understand ethnicity and achievement, we need to look how ethnicity interacts with gender and class
What does Connolly say about ethnicity, class and gender
In his study of five to six year olds in a multi ethnic school he studied how gender and ethnicity interact. He found black boys were seen as disruptive underachievers who were punished more and encouraged to do sports. Asian boys were seen as passive, seen as not a threat, but immature. Other boys picked on them, and excluded them to exert masculinity. Pupils saw them in need of protection from bullying
GENDER
GENDER
Progress at school over time-gender
- Girls are 7-17%higher in all 7 areas of learning. When entering
- key stage 1-3=girls better, especially English
- GCSE=10%of girls receiving 5 or above A*-C
- AS and A level=girls more likely to get good A levels
- Vocational courses-larger proportion of girls achieve distinctions
Impact of feminism-external gender
Feminist movement has increased women’s rights and opportunities thru changes in law. Changes are reflected in the media
What does Angela Mcrobbie say about feminism in external gender
Studied girls magazines and found that in the 70s they idealised getting married and not being alone, in 90s they contained independent women
How has changes in the family affected external gender achievement
Changes in the family, particularly the increase in divorce rate has led to increased lone headed women households which means they take on breadwinner role giving daughter role model. So girls must work hard to get financially stable career
How have changes in employment affected external gender
- 1970 equal pay act made it illegal to pay women less for same job
- 1975 sex discrimination act
- pay gap went to 30% to 15% number of women in employment went from 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013-maybe bc of more part time opportunities.
- some women breaking out of glass ceiling
How did Girls changing ambitions affect external gender
- sue Sharpe-in 1974 girls had low ambitions and believed educational success was unattractive. In the 90s girls ambitions had changed and their priorities included careers and supporting themselves.
- Gernshein-greater sense of individualism in modern society has lead to more value on independence
- Fuller-for some girls, educational success became part of their identity, individualised sense of self
Why is class, gender and ambition an external factor of gender
- some WC girls continue to have stereotyped aspirations for marriage and children and expect to go in traditional low-paid women’s work
- Diane Reay-WC girls limited aspirations reflect their limited job opps so traditional gender identities offer them a source of status
- Biggart-WC girls are more likely to face a precarious position in the labour market and see motherhood as only option for their futures, so no point in educational achievement.
Why are equal opportunities policies a factor for internal gender
- policy makers are much more aware of gender issues. Some policies encourage girls in untraditional careers
- introduction of curriculum made girls and boys study same subjects
What did Boaler say about equal opportunity policies in internal gender
Barriers have been removed and girls work harder as schools have become more meritocratic
Why are Positive role models in school a factor for internal gender
- increase in female teachers and head teachers, shows girls they can earn positions of respect
- female teachers especially bc they have to go through lengthy education themselves
Why is GCSEs and coursework a factor for internal gender
-it favours girls
What did Gorard say about GCSEs and coursework in internal gender
Found gender gap was consistent from 75-89 then it increased as GCSEs were introduced- so boys failure is product of it
What did Brown and Mitsos say about GCSEs and coursework in internal gender
Girls are more organised, conscientious, better at presentation, deadlines, correct equipment, therefore assessment of pupils now is better suited to them
What did French say about teacher attentions in internal gender
Analysed classroom interaction-boys received more attention bc attracted more reprimands
What did Francis say about teacher attentions in internal gender
White boys were picked on and treated harshly by teachers, as they got more attention
What did Swann say about internal gender
Boys dominate in whole class discussions, girls prefer group or pair work. Teachers treat them differently, resulting in higher achieving
Why is challenging stereotypes in the curriculum a factor in internal gender
Removal of gender stereotypes in textbooks, removed a barrier to girls achievement, reading material in 70s=housewives
What did Weiner say about challenging stereotypes in the curriculum in internal gender
Since the 80’s teachers have challenged stereotypes and sexist images, presenting girls positively
Why is selection and league tables a factor in internal gender
Schools see girls as desirable recruits because they are high achieving
What did Jackson say about selection and league table in internal gender
Introduction of league tables has improved opportunities for girls- creating self fulfilling prophecies as girls are widely accepted into schools compared to boys
What does Slee say about selection and league tables in internal gender
Boys are less attractive to high achieving schools bc they’re more likely to have behaviour problems. Considered liability students, that get in the way of league table success
What are liberal feminists views of girls achievement
Celebrate improving achievement for girls. Further progress can be made by policies, role models, and overcoming sexist attitudes
What are radical feminists views on girls achievement
- schools remain patriarchal
1. sexual harassment continues
2. education still limits girls choices
3. although more female head teachers exist, males are more likely to become heads
4. women underrepresented in many areas of curriculum
What is symbolic capital
Status, recognition and sense of worth that we are able to obtain from others.
What did Archer say about symbolic capital in internal gender
One reason for these differences ( WC feminine identities, girl gain symbolic capital - it brought conflict from the school preventing educational qualifications and MC careers) is the conflict between working class girls feminine identities and the values and ethos of the school
Hyper heterosexual feminine identities in internal gender
Many girls invest time in constructing desirable and glamorous identities, they’re loud. Encouraged conflict with the school-punished for jewellery, makeup etc.
What did Bordieu say about hyper heterosexual feminine identities in internal gender
Symbolic violence occurred when girls started being labelled as ‘others’
Boyfriends in internal gender
They get in the way of school and work and lowered aspirations, including losing interest in gaining a career. These girls then aspired to be mothers and settle down into WC feminine jobs
Being loud in internal gender
Some adopted loud feminine identities often leading to them being outspoken, independent and assertive. Failed to meet schools expectations of ideal pupil. Some teachers interpret as aggressive
Working class girls dilemma in internal gender
Either gain symbolic capital from peers w hyper heterosexual feminine identity or gaining educational capital, conforming to schools MC notions of ideal pupil. Some girls tried to cope by saying they were good ‘underneath’ reflecting girls struggle to achieve self worth
What did Evans say about successful working class girls in internal gender
- in her study of 21 WC girls, they wanted to go to uni to earn more, not for themselves, wanted to give back to their families
- even for more successful WC girls, they want to live at home with their families while studying, excludes them from elite universities
What did Skeggs say about successful working class girls in internal gender
Caring is a crucial part of WC feminine identities, girls in Evans study wanted to stay home to help their families
What did Archer say about successful working class girls in internal gender
Living at home is a part of WC identity. Part of WC habitus
BOYS AND ACHIEVEMENT
BOYS AND ACHIEVEMENT
What did DCSF say about boys and literacy in boys and achievement
Gender gap is bc of boys poorer literacy and language skills. Maybe bc parents read less to their sons, or mothers choose feminine reading material.
Globalisation and decline of traditional men’s jobs in boys and achievement
In the 80’s there was mining, engineering, ship building, steel industry. But bc of cheap labour in China etc it moved elsewhere/failed.
What did Mitsos and Brown say about globalisation and decline of traditional men’s jobs in boys and achievement
Decline in male job opportunities has led to identity crisis-undermining motivation and self esteem
What did Sewell say about feminisation of education in boys and achievement
Boys fall behind bc schools don’t nurture masculine traits, e.g competitiveness and leadership, instead celebrates girl traits like attentiveness. Coursework doesn’t help, he says greater emphasis should be placed on outdoor adventure
Shortage of male primary school teachers in boys and achievement
Lack of male role models, bc the culture of feminised education and being staffed by female teachers who are unable to control male students makes the boys fail to achieve
What did Yougov say about lack of male role models in boys and achievement
39% of 8-11 year olds have no lessons w male teacher, most said it made them better
Are more male teachers really needed? Boys and achievement
-Becky Francis: 2/3 of 7-8 year olds believe gender of teacher doesn’t matter
-Barbara read:only male teachers can exert discipline that boys need to achieve. There are 2 types of discourse; disciplinarian, teachers authority is explicit, liberal, teachers authority is implicit.
She found that most teachers, including females, use ‘masculine’ disciplinarian discourse. Sewells claim that primary schools r feminised can be proved wrong.
-Malcolm Haase: women r majority of primary school teachers, primary school is a ‘masculinised educational structure that is numerically dominated by women’
-Jones male teachers have 1/4 chance of becoming head, women have 1/13
What did Debbie Epstein say about laddish subcultures in boys and achievement
WC boys are more likely to be harassed if appear to be ‘swots’. Peers and some teachers want them to be rough, tough and dangerous
What did Francis say about laddish subcultures in boys and achievement
Laddish culture is becoming increasing widespread as girls move into masculine areas bc they don’t care about being labelled. Boys then become increasingly laddish to not appear feminine
The moral panic about boys in boys and achievement
Critics of feminism argue that policies to promote girls education is no longer needed. Boys are the new disadvantaged
What did Ringrose say about the moral panic about boys in boys and achievement
Moral panic reflects a fear that underachieving wc boys grow up to be unemployable underclass, but by narrowing gender policy down solely to achievement gaps, it ignored problems faced by girls, e.g bullying
What did Audrey Osler say about the moral panic about boys in boys and achievement
Focus of underachieving boys has neglected girls. Girls disengage from work quietly, boys do it publicly as a display of ‘laddish’ masculinity. Schemed to reduce exclusions of black boys disadvantage girls since they are less likely to be put in pupil referral units
Gender, class and ethnicity in boys achievement
Boys are still lagging behind girls, performance of both sexes has recently improved. Extent to which gender influenced achievement also varies with ethnicity. Gender gap is greater among black Caribbean pupils as girls define their femininity through education, boys oppose it, seeing it as effeminate
What did Tracey McVeigh say about gender, class and ethnicity in boys and achievement
Similarities are far greater than differences, girls and boys from same social class tend to get similar results, so class is a more important influence
What did Connolly say about gender, class and ethnicity in boys and achievement
Certain combinations of gender, class and ethnicity have more of an effect than others. Being female raises performance more than when ‘added to’ being black Caribbean than it does when ‘added to’ being white
GENDER AND SUBJECT CHOICE
GENDER AND SUBJECT CHOICE
Gender and subject choice
- national curriculum options: boys and girls choose differently
- AS and A-levels: gendered choices become more obvious, boys choose maths and physics and girls sociology, languages and English
- vocational courses: 1/100 childcare apprentices are boys
Gender role socialisation (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Early socialisation shapes children’s gender identity
What did Norman say about gender role socialisation (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
From an early age boys and girls dressed differently, given different toys and activities
What did Byrne say about gender role socialisation (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Teachers encourage boys to be tough and show initiative whereas girls are expected to be quiet, helpful, clean and tidy
What did Murphy and Elwood say about gender role socialisation (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Boys read hobby books and information texts whereas girls read stories about people, so explaining why boys enjoy science and girls enjoy English
What did Naima Browne and Carol Ross say about gender domains (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Children’s beliefs of gender norms are shaped by early experiences and expectations of adults. Children are more confident doing tasks in their gender domain
What did Patricia Murphy say about gender domains (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Boys and girls look at different details when tackling the same task. Girls focus on ppl feel boys focus on how things are made and work. Girls=humanities boys=sciences
Gendered subject images (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
The gender image of a subject can affect students choices
What did Kelly say about gendered subject images (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Science is a boys subject because
- science teachers mainly male
- textbooks focus on boys
- boys dominate the practical element
What did Colley say about gendered subject images (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Computer science is seen as masculine because it involves machine work, and fewer tasks involving group work which girls favour
Single sex schooling (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Pupils who attend single sex schools tend to hold less stereotyped subject images and make less traditional subject choices
What did Diana Leonard say about single sex schooling (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Girls in girls schools were more likely to take maths and science at a levels and then onto university, boys in boys schools were more likely to take English and languages (compared to mixed schools)
What did the Institute of physics say about single sex schooling (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Girls from single sex schools 2.4x more likely to take A level physics than in mixed schools. Perceptions of physics are also made outside of the classroom, e.g female physicists
Gender identity and peer pressure (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Boys tend to opt out of music and dance bc of negatives responses from peers. The absence of peer pressure from the opposite sex could explain why girls in single sex schools choose traditional boys subjects
What did Alison Dewar say about gender identity and peer pressure (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Girls are labelled as lesbian or butch if they are interested in sports
What did the institute of physics say about gender identity and peer pressure (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Something about doing physics as a girl in a mixed setting is off putting. In mixed schools, peers police each other’s subject choices so that boys and girls adopt appropriate gender identities
Gendered career opportunities (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
- women’s jobs tend to be similar to that of a housewife
- over 50% of women’s employment falls within 4 categories- clerical, secretarial, personal services or cleaning.
- this affects girls and boys perceptions of what jobs they could aim for
Gender, vocational choice and class
There is a social class dimension to choice of vocational course. WC pupils in particular make decisions based on a traditional sense of gender identity
What did Carol fuller say about gender, vocational choice and class (explanations of gender differences in subject choice)
Most WC girls wanted to go into jobs like childcare or health and beauty, bc of their habitus. School was implicitly steering girls towards certain lines of work through work experience
Pupils sexual and gender identities
Bob Conell: ‘hegemonic masculinity’ is the dominance of heterosexual masculine identity and the subordination of female and gay identities
What are double standards
When we apply one set of moral standards to one group but a different set to another
What did Lees say about double standards in pupils sexual and gender identities
Boys boast about their sexual exploits, but girls called a slag or a slut. Sexual conquest approved of w boys, but negatively labels girls
What did Connell say about verbal abuse in pupils sexual and gender identities
‘Rich vocabulary of abuse’ is how dominant gender and sexual identities are reinforced
What did Lees say about verbal abuse in pupils sexual and gender identities
Boys call girls slags if they seemed sexually available, and drags if they didn’t
What did Paechter say about verbal abuse in pupils sexual and gender identities
Name calling helps shape gender identity and male power. Negative such as gay or queer police people’s sexuality
What did Parker say about verbal abuse in pupils sexual and gender identities
Boys are labelled as gay for being friends with girls or female teachers
What did Mac and Ghaill say about the male gaze in pupils sexual and gender identities
The male and gaze is the way male pupil and teachers see girls as sexual objects and make judgements about their appearance. Enforces dominant masculinity. Boys constantly tell and re tell sexual stories -if not they get labelled as being gay
Male peer groups in pupils sexual and gender identities
Use verbal abuse to show masculinity
What did Epstein and Willis say about male peer groups in pupils sexual and gender identities
Boys in anti school subcultures often accuse. It’s who want to do well as effeminate or gay
What did Mac and Ghaill say about male peer groups in pupils sexual and gender identities
Examines how peer groups reproduce a range of different class based masculine gender identities. For example, WC macho lads were dismissive of hard working WC boys
What did Redman and Mac say about male peer groups in pupils sexual and gender identities
Macho lad changes to English man in sixth form
Female peer groups: policing identity in pupils sexual and gender identities
Girls face tension between an idealised feminine identity of showing loyalty to female peer group, being non competitive and getting along with everyone else and a sexualised identity that involves competing for boys
What did Currie say about female peer groups: policing identity in pupils sexual and gender identities
Girls have to balance 2 identities. Girls are too competitive-risk of slut shaming so excluded from friendships. Girls who don’t compete for a boyfriend face frigid shaming
What’s a Boffin identity in female peer groups in pupils sexual and gender identity
Girls who want to be successful may feel the need to conform to the schools notion of the ideal female pupil
What did Haywood and Mac and Ghaill say about teachers and discipline in pupils sexual and gender identity
Male teachers told boys off for behaving like girls and teased them when they gained lower test marks than girls
What did Askew and Ross say about teachers and discipline in pupils sexual and gender identities
Male teachers behaviour can reinforce messages about gender. E.g male teachers often have a protective attitude, reinforcing that women are incapable
THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIETY
THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIETY
What did Durkheim say are the 2 functions of education
- creates social solidarity by transmitted society’s culture from one generation to another
- teaches specialist skills as the division of labour requires cooperation of specialists creating social solidarity. Each Persian must have specialist knowledge in order to perform their role
What did Parsons say about meritocracy
Meritocracy is a persons status not ascribed but is achieved
Education acts as a bridge between family and wider society, bc they act on different principles so children need to learn a new way to live if they want to cope with wider society
What did Davis and Moore say about role allocation
It’s important for role allocation to be meritocratic, so the most important roles are filled by the most talented people. Education shows what pupils can do
Human capital- workers skills. Education allows each person to be allocated the most suitable job
Evaluation of the functionalist perspective (role of education)
- Melvin Tumin: how do we know a job is important?
- Marxists: education simply reinforced inequality by the ruling class
- wrong: this is an ‘over socialised’ view which implies pupils accept their teachings and never reject the values of the school
- the new right: state education system fails to prepare pupils for work
The New right and Neoliberal perspective of education
The new right don’t believe the current education system is achieving the right goals, it’s failing bc it’s run by the state
The solution will be solved through marketisation of education- competitiveness between schools and the ability to meet the needs of pupils, parents and employers
What did Chubb and Moe say about consumer choice
They said state education in the USA failed because
- No equal opportunities and failed the needs of disadvantaged groups
- inefficient- fails to produce pupils with the skills needed by the economy
- private schools deliver higher quality education
What are the two roles for the state (roles of education)
- framework for schools in which they have to compete e.g league tables
- state ensures schools transmit shared culture by imposing a single national curriculum, to ensure one cultural heritage
Evaluation of New right perspective (roles of education)
- Gerwitz and Ball: competition between schools benefits the MC who can use cultural and economic capital to gain access to more desirable schools
- real cause of low educational standards is not state control but social inequality and inadequate funding of state schools
- contradiction between the new rights support for parental choice and the state imposing a compulsory national curriculum
- Marxists say that education doesn’t impose a shared national culture, but encouraged culture of dominant minority ruling class
Marxist perspective on education
- main function of education to prevent revolution and maintain capitalism
- bourgeoisie are minority class, they’re employers who own the means of production and make profit from exploiting the proletariat
- WC are forced to sell their labour power to the capitalists since they own no means of production. So theyre poorly paid and alienated
What did Althusser say about ideological state apparatus
-ISA used to a maintain the rules of the bourgeoise by controlling people’s ideas, values and beliefs. Religion, the media, and the education system help to do this.
-repressive state apparatus: maintain the rule of the bourgeoise by force of the threat of it. E.g police
Althusser says education has 2 functions
-reproducing class inequality by transmitting it from generation to generation, by failing each generation of WC pupils
-legitimises class inequality by producing ideologies that disguise its true case
What did Bowles and Gintis say about Capitalist America
Views the education system as reproducing the obedient work force that will accept inequality as inevitable
The correspondence principle and the hidden curriculum
All lessons that are learnt in school without being directly taught. E.g through the everyday working of hierarchy in schools, pupils become obedient as they would to their bourgeoisie boss
What did Bowles and Gintis say about the myth of meritocracy
The main factor for determining whether or not someone has a high income is their family and class background not ability of education achievement
