EDI Midterm Study - Class Slides Flashcards
1
Q
Priviledge
A
a set of unearned resources or assets many of which come to a person as a result of gender, ethnic, class, or other groupings into which the person is born.
2
Q
Dominant (in relation to priviledge)
A
groups that exercise the most influence power and control over how a society operates.
3
Q
Oppressed
A
those who come from groups whose opportunities are reduced or denied because of these societal institutions
4
Q
Privilege
A
unearned advantage we get from being part of a dominant group whose needs have been traditioanlly been priotized.
5
Q
Examples of Privilege through control.
A
- Privilege the appearance of models and actors in ads and in high-profile TV or movie roles.
- Legal penalties: for possession of
different types of drugs, white collar vs.
blue collar crime. - Community location of landfills, sewage
treatment plants, or sources of
industrial pollution vs. parks, schools,
hospitals, or shopping. - Unavailability of public transportation
or parking facilities in certain areas. - Procedures and requirements for
seeking employment, such as the use
of the Internet for applications. - Access to free or reasonably priced
quality education, and support for
education from tax revenues vs.
tuitions paid by the learner (based
partly on student loans).
6
Q
How is privilege thorugh control relevant to the work environment?
A
“Organizations exist within often reflect and reinforce the social and cultural environment of the surrounding social system in which some are privileged, and others are not.
7
Q
Collective or individual response to discrimination?
A
Interpreting discrimination as the result of group-based oppressive societal structures suggests that collective action is needed to change the situation.
In contrast, if discrimination is
seen as justified based on
one’s own talent or motivation,
then individual changes seem
required
8
Q
Interpretations of Social Reality Influenced by a Sense of Privilege
A
- Discussions of the gender wage gap due to women’s choices, poor negotiating skills, lack of interest in promotions, and other attributes of women ignore structural and institutional reasons for the wage gap.
- Explanations for the lack of advancement of
employees from minority groups overlook
structural barriers to education, training,
hiring, and promotion and the de-motivating
effects of lack of similar role models or
mentors are often ignored. - Job performance of some groups (e.g., those
with disabilities) may be interpreted in terms
of their lack of ability to perform certain
tasks. However, equipment, environments,
and work clothing are designed for the
capabilities of persons without disabilities. - In contrast, if dominants understand
inequalities as resulting in part from
unearned privilege denied to the other
group, they may experience more sense of responsibility for inequality, more obligation to address it, and less prejudice or negativity
toward “others.”
9
Q
Entitlement
A
Privileged individuals do not realize the role that opportunity plays in their good fortune, instead, they believe it is only their talent.
10
Q
Meritocracy
A
Good things come to those who have the ability and work hard.
11
Q
Instutionalism
A
Structural bias
refers to the negative consequences of living or working in a environment that is designed for te dominant group.
12
Q
What does Consturtivism Asserts
A
we actively create our understanding of reality as we give meaning to the world we encounter.
perspective on how we come to know the physical and social world around us.
13
Q
What are some constuctionist Assumptions
A
- What we experience as our knowledge of the worlddoes not actually arise from systematic study ofreality.
- Our knowledge actually comes from social inventions such as language, customs, historical accounts, or religious or political frameworks.
- Dominant groups have had a greater
influence on the nature of the social realitywe all experience and how it is communicated through language and media. - These dominant interpretations are critically significant because they often lead to actions of individuals, groups, and societies.
14
Q
What is the social construct sex or gender?
Ethnicity or Race? ***Trick Question
what are some other social constructs.
A
gender.
Both.
age.
disability.
social class.
Social identity, man, woman, non-binary etc.
Gendered Roles: fixed roles for men and women.
Forcing the gender/sex binary
leads to the categorization of
some individuals as
exceptional or abnormal, denial
of identity, discrimination, and
punishment, or increased
conformity to the status quo.
Race
Generally refers to a system of
classifying people based on biological
characteristics.
– Current genetic research does not find
that races are genetically distinct.
– Someone from India who is “White” or
“Asian” in the United States would be
“Black” in Great Britain
– Race arose in the 1600s and 1700s as a
biological justification for the
exploitation of one group by another
and coincided historically with African
slavery and encroachment on the lands
of the Native Americans.
15
Q
What is attribution theory
A
we are likely to respond quite differently toward others depending on judgments of their abilities, motivation, and the circumstances of their behaviour.
■ Internal (dispositional)
– When we think someone was hired because of high ability and motivation
■ External (situational)
– If we think hiring was based on luck, social connections, demographic fit
■ Self-serving biases are self-attributions about success or failure that are distorted in ways that
16
Q
What is fundamental atrributon error?
A
■ Fundamental attribution error: a tendency to
overestimate the degree to which someone else’s
behavior results from internal causes.
17
Q
What is actor-observer effect?
A
Actor-observer effect, which means that
concerning our behaviour (actor), we focus on external or situational factors. However, when we observe another’s behaviour, we focus on internal causes such as personality.
18
Q
Self-Serving Biases
A
Self attributions about succes or failure that are distorted in ways that protect our self-esteem.
19
Q
Equity Theory (From OB)
A
A social psychological theory that deals with feelings or fairness in social situations.
- Equity Theory is inherently social and
comparative. - We feel that a situation (e. g., a job,
friendship, marriage) is fair when the ratio of our inputs to outputs (I/O) is equal to the I/O ratio of our chosen comparison person - I/O ratios that are different produce an
uncomfortable emotional state of inequity
that motivates the person to do something
to correct the situation
20
Q
Distributive Justice
A
how rewards or outcomes are allocated or distributive
21
Q
Procedural Justice
A
justice judgment based on fairness
of the procedures used to make
decisions about outcomes
22
Q
Informational Justice
A
adequacy of information or
explanations provided about decision
23
Q
Interpersonal Justice
A
the degree to which treatment of those
affected is respectful and tactful
24
Q
6 rules to Fair Procedures
A
- Consistency: Procedures should be the same for everyone and across time.
- Bias suppression: Procedures should be objective and not affected by personal self-interest or preconceived ideas.
- Accuracy: Information should be as good, complete, and error-free as possible.
- Correctability: Decisions made in error should be reversible; an appeal process should exist.
- Representativeness: The allocation process should reflect the interests of relevant or important constituencies.
- Ethicality: Procedures should follow commonly accepted moral values and not involve deception, bribery, invasions of privacy, or other unethical
behaviors.
25
Structure refers to
formal boundaries within and among parts of an organization, and second to informal boundaries.
26
Formal boundaries of organization consist of
Departments (e.g. Manufacturing, Marketing, divisions, like those organized around different products or geographical areas)
27
Informal Boundaries of organization consist of
develops spontaneously, e.g., employees using the lunchroom and those going out for lunch, or those who play together and those who do not.
28
What are Faultines in an organizations
Separations among employees
based on attributes such as race,
sex, longevity, language, etc.
* These “cracks” are often hidden
but can become causes of
structural weakness that could
cause a group to break under
stress.
* Example: Women are likely to be
clustered in certain jobs and
departments (formal structure) and
also to socialize together off the job
(informal structure).
29
Layers (in structure defintion)
dividing the organization in terms of authority, responsibility, power, salary, control of budget, and other attributes from top to bottom.
30
Sticky Floor
consisting of factors that retain them near the bottom of the organizational hierarchy.
31
Glass Escalator
refers to greater chances of upward mobility for men working in female-dominated fields.
32
Studies show that a glass escalator may
exist in some settings but is probably
not a universal or even widespread
phenomenon. (True or False)
True
33
Glass Cliff
refers to the observation
that women's odds of being chosen
seem more likely for leadership
positions in challenging and perhaps
career-threatening organizational crises
34
Glass Ceiling
A metaphorical
barrier keeping
women or
minorities from
advancing
beyond a certain
level.
35
Why is the glass ceiling metaphor misleading (IMPORTANT)
Implies that women have equal access to entry-level positions.
* Suggests that all barriers to women are unseen
* Assumes that a single barrier exists while ignoring variety of obstacles woman can face
* Fails to recognize diverse strategies that women devise to become leaders.
* Precludes possibility that women can overcome barriers and become leaders.
36
What are the four general explanations for glass ceiling according to Gutek.
1. Individual deficit model suggests that underrepresentation at high levels occurs because candidates do not possess the
necessary preparation and skills for promotion to higher levels or the skills or knowledge to work effectively at higher levels.
2. The structural model, proposes that barriers result from how the company's structure affects behavior and from
institutionalized processes considered the route to advancement.
3. In the sex role model, the problem is defined as society's expectations about appropriate behavior for and stereotypic
ideas about women or men.
4. The intergroup model proposes that advancement is limited
by dynamics of the relationships between women and men (or the majority and non-majority groups), including hierarchy and status, prejudiced attitudes, and discriminatory or exclusionary
behavior.
37
How can one deal with the glass ceiling (Important: may be on short answer quesiton)
* Make demographic statistics publicly available
* Enforce anti-discrimination laws more strongly
* Demonstration of CEO commitment to workforce
diversity and holding managers accountable for meeting
advancement goals for underrepresented groups.
* Selection, promotion and retention of qualified women,
people of color, and White men
* Educate workforce about glass ceiling issues
* Initiate Work/Life and family-friendly policies and
adopt “high performance workplace” practices such as
participation, training and education, and attention to
issues of compensation, security, and workplace
environment.
38
How the glass ceiling affects horizontal structure
“Glass walls” are barriers that limit
movement from one area of a
company to another, making lateral
and functional moves difficult.
* This may result from organizational
policies on promotions and transfers,
narrow job descriptions, highly
specialized skill sets, or lack of cross-
training that prevent employees from
learning about or performing other
jobs.
39
Occupational Segregation
the fact that occupations or jobs tend to
be occupied predominantly by persons
of one sex or race
40
Feminization
the increasing prevalence in women in a certain occupation
41
What are some factors that lead to "feminization"
* Labor shortages of male workers
* Sex-specific demand for women
* Changing social attitudes
* Declining resistance by male workers
* Women’s labor supply and preference
42
Pay equity Act
As of September 2024, public-
sector organizations and those in
federally regulated industries will
need to comply with some new
requirements of the Pay Equity
Act.
Established to ameliorate the problem of gender-based pay discrimination
- establish, sept 2024
- includes forming a pay equity
committee,
- developing a pay
equity plan,
- dentifying any
gender-based pay gaps.
* The first annual reports will be due
in June 2025.
43
Wage Gap
when median annual earnings for men and women are discriminatory in nature.
44
Why does excluding annual compensation make wage gap seem smaller?
Excludes compensation that favours men,
- this includes many jobs
- overtime and pay bonus
- leaves out professional managers, executives, and others
45
(important) Over the past 26 years, the gender wage ratio has improved from ____ in 1997 to ____ in 2023, what does this mean
in 2023, for every dollar earned by men, women earned eighty-eight cents
46
Canada has the 7th 'best' gender pay. T/F?
Wrong. They have 7th WORST gendear pay.
46
How does the wage gap differentiate between men and women for different types of work?
Full time - 17.1% median diference between men and women
Self Employed - 28% difference between men and women
47
WHat is the percentage of men who occupy manager level (M-suite) jobs compared to women.
65.5% of men take management jobs compared to 35.5% of women.
48
HOw long will it take to close the gender pay back according to worldwide economic forum, 2023.
134 years.
49
How can one address the gender pay gap?
* Enforce pay equity legislation
across sectors and workplaces,
increasing the minimum wage
* Universal childcare (UFCW
Canada).
* Ongoing audits of compensation
and gendered advancement
opportunities
* Prioritization of workplace
flexibility, especially for mothers
and caregivers;
* Implementation of pay
transparency policies (Canadian
Women’s Foundation, 2019).
50
Job evaluation defined:
skills, responsibility and other attributes of jobs so they can be arranged in a hierarchy for the purpose of setting wages wages
51
Job evaluation is based on what
compensable factors
- which are job characteristics that can be identified on which pay can be based.
52
What is the bias of job evaluation
compensable factors are based on subjective judgments based on how much the person values each factor
For example, a factor such as
“responsibility for money” usually carries
more points and thus is weighted more
heavily than a factor dealing with “working conditions” or “responsibility for people.
53
Bias exists in these job evaluation often lead to what outcome
characteristics of
men's jobs (“responsibility for money or
equipment”) are weighted more heavily
than attributes of women's jobs
(“responsibility for people”).
54
How can one change organizational outcomes through reforming the structure? (3 things)
Eliminate structures and processes (Institutionalist in nature) that may limit in EDI.
Establish quality circles, cross functional teams. or other groups that bring together people who may not ordinarily interact so they can contribute more effectively (matrix)
Job Rotation: Temporary assignments, formal mentoring programs, or organizational communication mechanisms can be very helpful.
55
Attitude definition
positive or negative feelings concerning objects, people,
or events.
56
T/F: Attitudes can affect job behaviour.
True
57
Attitudes lead to
Stereotypes, Prejudices and discrimination
58
What is the Tripartite definition of attitude?
Thoughts, feelings, and behavioural tendencies
59
Evaluative/affective component definition of attitude
Learned predisposition to respond in a positive or negative manner.
60
Evaluative/affective component definition of attitude:
Learned predisposition to respond positively or negatively.
61
Steretypes =
Prejudices =
Discrimination =
Options; behavioural, affective cognitive
Stereotypes = cognitive (how you think)
Prejudices = affective (how you feel)
Discrimination - behavioural
62
Between attitudes (stereotypes, prejudices), and discrimination (behaviour), what should diversity management target?
Behaviours as they are observable while attitudes are not.
63
true or false: attitudes and behaviours always align
false
They do NOT always align.
64
Stereotypes are
categories into which we classify people on the basis of some defining attribute
65
Stereotypes contain (2 things)
a. Defining attribute. Occupation, national origin, religious affiliation, fraternity, sorority.
b. Associative attributes, traits or behaviours thought to be true of all members of a group (Ie. judgemental or evaluative such as lazy, strong-headed etc.)
66
Personal stereotypes are _______ cultural stereotypes are _____________....
Held by individuals.
Recognized by people who do not personally believe them for example
For example, popular ideas exist about surfers, IT professionals, long-haul
truck drivers, or US Marines.
67
What are some of the dangers and effects of stereotypes
Dangers
* Prevent us from learning unique information about others
* Imply we are making assumptions, which people may take offense to
* Generalizations about a group are necessarily inaccurate
Effects
* Attention and memory are altered to where we may not notice contradictory information
* Attributions are affected as we look for behaviour to match our expectations and we attribute this behaviour with our stereotype
68
Danger of Single Story (Chimamanda Adichie)
Adichie argues that single stories originate from simple misunderstandings or one's lack of knowledge of others.
Stories have malicious intent to suppress other groups of people do prejudices.
Children especially are impressionable and vulnerable when it comes to single stories.
69
What are two examples Chimamanda Adichie uses to discuss why generalizations are made?
My college roommate believed everyone in Africa comes from a poor struggling background.
- leads to the default position of well-meaning pity.
Mexico with immigrants due to strong media coverage. Formed stereotype based on incomplete information.
70
What did Chimmanda recognize through her own experiences
When going to Mexico, she realized that Mexicans were not as harmful as Americans made them to be.
71
Main learning point of Danger of Single Story
Power can be used for malintent through controlling how stories are told, who tells them, when they are told, and how many stories are told.
72
Stereotypes are completely accurate about all members of the target group. (True or False)
False. They cannot be completely accurate about all members of a target group.
73
Schnieder (2004) found that people can be ________ accurate, at least" in stereotypes about different student groups in college.
This stated, they are ______ _______ for substantive interactions
moderately.
NOT USEFUL.
74
Illusory Correlation
Tendency to overestimate association between two things, each of which occurs infrequently e.g., wearing glasses and IQ
75
Self-Fullfilling Prophecy
How is it applied to streretypes?
Also known as the Pygmalion effect. Generally causes what you thought would happen to happen.
Process of assuming something about another, then behaving toward that person if this assumption were true.
76
Stereotype Threat
A process by which an unfavourable stereotype can depress performance in a stigmatized group.
"a situational threat ... that ... can affect the members of any group about whom a negative
stereotype exists"
77
When someone is reminded that they are in a group that is associated with lower performance.., the person generally tends to do ______
poorly,
78
Social Identity Threat
A psychological state experienced when one is made aware of an unfavorable reputation where one’s behavior may confirm that negative reputation e.g.,
being a female in a male dominated profession.
79
Stereotype Automaticity (Patricia Devine)
Referring to the fact that activation is largely automatic when encountered with something connected to a stereotype but the application of this can be intentional controlled.
80
How can stereotype activitation be reduced?
With 'extensive training' in the use of non-stereotypic associations or by repeated practice in identifying and negating associations.
81
Stereotyping Suppression is an effective way to reduce categorical thiinking. True or False.
False. Stereotyping is a fundamental social cognition process. Attempting to suppress stereotypes often results in the opposite effect as intended. Meaning in stronger categorical thinking.
82
How to Control Stereotypes
1. Take more time to make judgements. (TIME)
2. Obtain and use individuating information (Individualize)
3. Decide without knowing the candidates' category membership (Blindness)
4. WHen stereotyping, correct for category-based differences (Equity)
5. See the situation as the other person would see it (Perception).
6. Be exposed to counter-stereotypic examples (Learning).
83
The Stereotype Content Model (SCM) by Susan Fiske (IMPORTANT) - Two Factor Model - (***IMPORTANT)
Suggest people want to know two things about someone they encounter.
a) their intention and goals
b) their ability to achieve intended goals
Based on their ability to be competent in these areas, this leads to feelings of warmth and competence (Or the opposite)
84
What are Microagressions?
Short and common offences that derogate someone by conveying negative views or hostility based on their characteristics.
85
Microinsults
Insensitive, rude, or demeaning comments.
86
Microassaults
Avoidance or purposeful discrimination.
87
Microinvalidations
Comments or behaviours that nullify the reactions of the victim.
88
Environmental Microagressions
Any of the above, where the offence stems from the physical or social environment.
89
IMPORTANT EXAMPLE of Microagression, Microinsults, Microinvalidation.
Microaggression
Example: A person says to a colleague of Asian descent, "You're really good at math for someone from your background."
Explanation: This implies that being good at math is unexpected based on stereotypes about their ethnicity.
Microinsult
Example: A manager tells a woman in a meeting, "You speak so well for someone who doesn’t have a college degree."
Explanation: This undermines her intelligence and suggests that her qualifications are not valid or expected.
Microinvalidation
Example: A person of color shares their experience of racial profiling, and a friend responds, "That doesn’t happen as often as you think; you’re just being sensitive."
Explanation: This dismisses their experience and feelings, invalidating their lived reality.
These subtle comments can accumulate and significantly impact individuals’ experiences and sense of belonging.
90
What are the three types of discrimination?
- Useful and perhaps necessary
- Undesirable but not illegal
- Illegal
91
(IMPORTANT) What are the Individual-level Explanations for Discrimination?
1. Lack of information or misinformation
(Danger of single story)
2. Learned Discriminatory Behaviour
3. Norms and Practices
91
Societal Level Explanations for Discrimination (Macro)
1. Exploitation - one group takes advantage of another for economic or other advantage because it is more powerful
- attempts to improve include humanitarian or moral appeals to fairness
- ex. Robinhood.
2. Realistic Group Conflict
- Groups compete for scarce resources.
- attempt to improve including expanding the universe of scarce resources and uniting competing groups
3. Identity
- how categorization of in - an out-groups can lead to intergroup prejudice and discrimination
- attempts to improve include deemphasis on group boundaries guided inter-group contact and development of overarching goals.
92
What are some ways to resolve the societal forms of discrimination?
Exploitation - can be improved by adopting a humanitarian perspective and appealing to fairness
Realistic Group Conflict - attempts to improve include expanding the universe of scarce resources and uniting competing groups.
Identity - deemphasis on group boundaries guided inter-group contact and development of overarching.
93
What are some ways to resolve individual-level prejudice or discrimnation.
Laco of Information misinformation - valuing diversity
Learned Discriminatory Behaviour - modelling inclusive behaviour and reinforcing positive outcomes.
Norms or Practices - Direct or indirect intervention is required.
94
What some cognitive accounts of individual-level discrimination
belief prejudicing - dislike or avoidance of someone whose beliefs are dissimilar to yours.
Inferences - inferring something negative about a person who receives differential treatment
Attributional errors - Actor observer effect or fundamental attribution error.
- your problem situational, their problem dispositional.
95
What is the Intergroup Threat Model
analyzes intergroup and individual factors leading to intergroup threats that realistic.
96
What are the five sources of threats based on the intergroup threat model
- personality traits
- attitudes and cognitions
- amount of intergroup contact
- intergroup relations
- situational factors
97
Dual Process Model (IMPORTANT)
Focus on two individual characteristics of Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)
98
Integroup Contact Hypothesis
Factors Important for Integroup Contact to have positive effects
1. Equal Status Contact
2. Shared GOals
3. Cooperative Relations
4. External Support (Laws, norms, authorities)
5. Friendship Potential
99
Pettigrew's Paradox
Those most likely to have intergroup contact are atypical of their group and the least likely to evoke change.
100
Social Learning Theory
behaviour change through observational learning or modelling
101
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Unpleasant Tension from Holding two conflicting ideas motiavates people to change
102
Self-Perception Theory
Attitude is seen as merely an inference drawn from observation of one's own behvaiour
103
Role Play
the act of speaking or writing count-attitudinal message or improvisation to move away form an original opinion.
104
Group
A Bounded Collection of interdependent people, share a common purpose, participate in social interaction with one another, and see themselves as a group.
105
Team
Common purpose of responsibility for accomplishing a particular task.
106
Pseudo-Team
Group of individuals who
work interdependently but
lack the characteristics that
define a true team.
107
Ad hoc groups
Groups formed for research
purposes for a limited time
108
Managing Diversity
Structure
* Static snapshot of
relationships among group
members at a particular
point in time
* Process: Dynamic ways in which
relationships change over
time
* Emphasizes task interactions
or socio-emotional interactions
109
Systems theory
teams are open systems
- A semi-permeable
boundary
* Interdependent internal
parts of subsystems, so that
change in one produces
ripples of change in others
* Inputs from the
environment, internal
process, and output from
the environment
* Dependency upon the
external environment.
110
Group Productivity Model
Potential Productivity
- best a team can do determined by task of resources
Process Losses
- due to member loss and coordination
111
Team members motivation could be affected by
working with particular teamates
feelings about worok or how it was being managed
being managed
112
Coordination can be influence by
faulty role assignment
* unnecessary duplication of effort
* poor leadership
113
Input Mediator Output Inputs Framewoorks
Each member brings unique
attributes, skills and
perceptions
* These inputs impact team
performance but are
mediated by team process
and psychological states
* Leads to outcomes such as
member satisfaction and
commitment and the cycle
repeats
114
Mannix and Neale
When working with diverse teams
they recommend considering
* Organizational context
(promoting competition or
cooperation)
* Underlying processes to achieve
goals
* how diversity is understood and
measured
* Suggestions about managing
diversity within teams
1. Use innovative problem-
solving approaches
2. Focus on leadership and
group process to create
opportunities for members to
express themselves
3. Strengthen influence of
minority viewpoints
115
Pooled Interdependence
Contributions of different
individuals are combined to make
the product
115
role structure
roles are expectation for behaviour of poeple and how they will behave with others
116
Sequential interdependenc
One person’s output becomes input
for next person (assembly line)
117
Reciprocal interdependence
Work together, going back and
forth among members
118
Team functioning is constrained by
the tasks that members are
responsible for.
* How an assignment is chosen, by
whom, how clearly task is
defined
* When a task is to choose, a well-
managed process can lead diverse
team members to find and correct
errors, which groups excel at.
* In negotiating, conflict is inherent
because parties’ preferences are likely
to be different or contradictory.
* In execution, process is often
discretionary; teams will do best when
process is controlled
Task
Characterist
ics
119
Bell et Al conclusions
a) teams are more cooperative and confident when members value teamwork.
b) high ability team work better together
c) the effect of surface-level differences depends on the context - whether differences create faultiness and how that is managed.
120
High ability team members
121
Transactive memory
knowledge maong members about taksk relevant information.
122
Information sampling bias
focus on infomraiton they hold in common
123
Abilene Paradox
when a team makes a diecison despite unexpressed disagreement between team members
124
Social facilitation
increas motivation done in the presence of others
125
Techniques for eliciting diversity
Techniques for eliciting diverse ideas
- **How would you manage a decision using group thinking?**
- *For instance, if there is a vote under a time factor.*
- DELPHI
- For instance. Online survey or vote where feedback is anonymous.
The moderator plays an essential role of the success of this technique.
- Nominal Group Technique (SEARCH UP MEANING)
- structured ideas and agenda
- discussion face
- round-robin approach eliminating the presence or influence of a leading voice.
- brings clarity and consensus to the group.
**BOTH TECHNIQUES** AIM FOR CONSENSUS
- Delphi = anonymity (incredibly useful in academic research)
- Nominal = face-to-face process encouraging active participation (great for group projects or team research b/c of participative nature)
126
