economics-micro Flashcards
What is economics?
Economics is a social science that studies how humans make decisions when they face scarcity.
What does scarcity mean?
Scarcity means that our wants and needs are greater than the amount of available resources.
Economic agents make decisions based on:
- Political Judgement<br></br><br></br>- Short term outcomes<br></br><br></br>- Moral Judgement<br></br><br></br>- Normative Statements
What is a positive statement?<br></br>
They are objective statements that can be proved by referring to evidence
What is a normative statement?
They are statements of opinion that contain a value judgement
What is a value judgement?
They are judgements about society that cannot be quantified and tested, found within a normative statement.
What does ceteris paribus mean?
all other things kept equal.
How is economics Similar to other sciences?
- Develop theories and make models<br></br><br></br>- Use economic models to make predictions<br></br><br></br>
How is economics different to natural sciences?
- Controlled approaches experiments cannot be conducted<br></br><br></br>- economist use the assumption ceteris paribus<br></br><br></br>
What is the basic economic problem?
There are not enough resources on earth to satisfy humans’ unlimited wants and needs.
What are the 3 foundations to economics decisions?
What to produce?<br></br><br></br>How to produce?<br></br><br></br>Who to produce for?<br></br><br></br>
What is a need?
something necessary for survival e.g food, water, shelter
What is a want?
Things people can live without but desire e.g luxury cars, designer clothes
What are the 4 factors of production?
land, labor, capital, enterprise
What is meant by land?
Finite and non-finite resources found on the planet, including animals, water and natural materials.
What is meant by labour? (2 things)
Human capital - the value human labour brings to the production process<br></br><br></br>Labour force - the population that can work.<br></br><br></br>
What is meant by capital?
Human made resources: technology machinery
What is meant by enterprise?
The entrepreneurs who take a risk to make a profit by creating things from the other factors of production.
What are the 3 main economics agents? What are their roles?
- Producers: supply goods/services<br></br>- Consumers: purchase goods/services<br></br>- Governments: Establish rules in an economy
What decisions does a producer make?
Producers must decide what products to make and the selling price of products.
What decisions does a consumer make?
Consumers decide what products to purchase and how much they want to spend on products.
What is an opportunity cost?
The loss of potential gain from other alternatives when one alternative is chosen.<br></br><br></br>
What are some problems with opportunity cost?
- Not all factors have alternatives<br></br>- Some alternatives are unknown<br></br>- Agents may lack information on alternatives
What is a trade-off?
sacrificing one good or service to purchase or produce another
Traditionally, what is the main incentive that firms base their decisions on?
Profit
What is a PPF curve?
A curve which shows the maximum amount of two goods or services an economy can produce.<br></br><br></br>-it explains the constraints experienced by society.<br></br><br></br><img></img><br></br>
How is opportunity cost shown on the PPF curve?
As you move along the curve, to produce good X you have to sacrifise production of good Y.
Why is the PPF curved?
The law of diminishing returns:<br></br><br></br>- As we increase the production of Good X the more of Good Y has to be sacrificed
What do points on, inside and outside the PPF mean?
On =Productively efficient, all factors are being fully utilised Inside = Under utilisation of factors of production
Outside = Not currently possible to produce at this point.
What cause an outwards shift in the PPF?
Economic growth:<br></br><br></br>- Improvements in labour and technology<br></br>- Increased resources (increase in total number of workers)<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What causes an inwards shift in the PPF?
Negative economic growth:<br></br><br></br>- A loss of resources (e.g. natural disaster)<br></br>- Migration<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is static efficiency?
Refers to the efficiency atany point in timeand can be separated into allocative and productive.
What is productive efficiency?
Any point on the PPF, when all resources are being used asefficiently as possible.<br></br><br></br>Products are produced at a level where average costs are at their lowest<br></br><br></br>
What does a linear PPF show?
Opportunity costs are constant<br></br><br></br><img></img>
How does the specialisation of factors of production change along the PPF curve?
Towards any end of the PPF, factors of production are specialised for the production of the good of the opposite end.<br></br><br></br>This is because your opportunity cost is greater towards the end of the PPF
What can cause a PPF to shift out in one direction?
- When improvements in capital/labour can only benefit one good.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is demand?
the willingness and ability of buyers to purchase goods at a given price within a particular time period.
What is price?
Price is what the buyer pays for a specific good or service.
What is the income effect?
achange in quantity demanded caused by a change in consumer income
What is the substitution effect?
When demand for the cheaper good increases demand for the costlier good decreases.
What is a complement good?
Goods that are often used together; when price increases both demands fall (PS4 and PS4 games)
What is a substitute good? (Competitive Demand)
Goods that are alternatives to eachother. An increase in price of good A would cause a rise in demand for good B and a fall for good A (McDonald’s Vs KFC)
What is a demand curve?
a curve that shows the relationship between the price of a product and the quantity of the product demanded<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What causes a contraction and extension in demand?
Change in price<br></br>Rise in price = Contraction<br></br>Fall in price = Extension<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What factors can cause a shift in the demand curve?
P - Population<br></br>I - Income<br></br>R - Related goods (subs and complements)<br></br>A - Advertisement<br></br>T - Tastes<br></br>E - Expectations (future price change)<br></br>S - Season
What effect does increased income have on the demand curve for normal goods vs inferior goods?
For normal goods, increased income will lead to increase in quantity demanded (Cars)<br></br><br></br>For inferior goods, increased increased income will lead to a fall in quantity demanded (Rice)
What is a Giffin good? How does its demand curve look?
- A Giffin good is one for which as price increases demand increases e.g. necessities for low income earners<br></br><br></br>- Upwards sloping demand curve.<br></br><br></br><br></br><br></br>
What is a Veblen good? How does its demand curve look?
- A Veblen good is one for which as price increases, demand increases e.g. expensive goods for celebrities<br></br><br></br>- Upwards sloping demand curve.
What is elasticity?
Elasticity measures the responsiveness of one variable to the change in another variable
What is the equation for percentage change?
(X2 - X1)/X1
What is Price elasticity of demand (PED)? What is the equation for it?
PED is a measure of how quantity demanded responds to a change in price.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is elastic demand?
Elastic demand is when PED > 1. This means a % change in price will lead to a larger % change in quantity demanded.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is inelastic demand?
Inelastic demand is where the 0 < PED < 1. This means a % change in price will lead to a smaller % change in demand.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What does unit elastic mean?
Unitary elasticity is where the PED = 1. % change in price will lead to an equal % change in quantity demanded.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is perfectly elastic demand?
PED = ± infinity<br></br>Any price increase will cause demand to drop to zero.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What happens when you increase and decrease price when PED is perfectly elastic?
- Increasing price means nobody is willing or able to purchase<br></br><br></br>- Decreasing price means firms are unable to cover costs.
What is perfectly inelastic demand?
PED = 0<br></br>Any price change won’t affect demand.<br></br><br></br><img></img><br></br>
Why is PED always negative?
Because price and demand have an inverse relationship
What is income elasticity of demand (YED)? What is the equation for it?
YED measures how much demand changes with a change in real income.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is the YED for normal necessitiy goods?
- Normal necessity goods have a positive income elasticity, <br></br>- 0 < YED < 1<br></br>- (income rises, demand increases).
What is the YED for inferior goods?
Inferior goods have negative income elasticity, YED < 0 (income rises; demand decreases).<br></br><br></br>
What is cross elasticity of demand (XED)? What is the formula for it?
XED is a measure of how the quantity demanded of one good responds to a change in the price of another good.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is the XED for substitute goods?
XED is positive for substitutes (XED > 0)
What is the XED for complementary goods?
XED is negative for complementary goods (XED < 0)
What is the XED for independent goods?
XED = 0, as independent goods are not related to each other.
What is total revenue?
Price per unit x Quantity<br></br><br></br><img></img>
If a product is price elastic, what does increasing and decreasing the price do?
Decreasing price = increases total revenue.<br></br>Increasing price = decreases total revenue.
If a product is price inelastic, what does increasing and decreasing the price do to total revenue?
Decreasing price = decreases total revenue.<br></br>Increasing price = increases total revenue.
How does the burden of an indirect tax differ when PED is elastic vs inelastic?
- When PED is inelastic, most of the burden is passed onto consumers, since a change in price doesnt really affect demand<br></br><br></br>- When PED is elastic the firms will take up the burden, since increasing the price will cause a large fall in demand<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What factors influence PED? (6)
- NASBIT<br></br>- Necessity Goods<br></br>- Addictive habit forming goods<br></br>- Substitutes<br></br>- Brand Loyalty<br></br>- Income % spent<br></br>- Time (SR vs LR)
What happens to PED when there are more substitutes?
Becomes more price elastic
What is PED like for cheap goods vs expensive goods?
Expensive - Price elastic<br></br>Cheap - Price inelastic
What is PED like in the long run?
Price elastic, as you have more time to find alternatives
How does elasticity change along a demand curve?
At zero demand/high price : price elastic<br></br>At midpoint : unit elastic<br></br>At zero price/high quantity : price inelastic<br></br>PED of ± 1 = maximised total revenue.<br></br><br></br><img></img><br></br>
What is supply?
Supply is the quantity of a good or services that producers are willing and able to produce at a given price at a particular time.
What is a supply curve?
A curve that shows the relationship between the price of a product and the quantity of the product supplied.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is the law of supply?
as price increases, quantity supplied increases all other factors constant.
What causes an extension and contraction in a supply curve?
Increase price - extension<br></br>Decrease price - contraction<br></br><br></br><img></img>
Why does a rise in price lead to an increase supply of that good?
The increase in price incentivises firms to increase output to make more profits.
When does the supply curve shift?
When the quantity supplied increases/decreases at every price level.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What factors cause a shift in the supply curve?
P - Productivity<br></br>I - Indirect taxes<br></br>N - Number of firms<br></br>T - Technology<br></br>S - Subsidies<br></br>W - Weather<br></br>C - Costs of production<br></br><br></br>OR<br></br><br></br>A change in the cost, quality or quantity of factors of production.
What is price elasticity of supply (PES)? What is the formula for it?
Price elasticity of supply measures how the quantity supplied of a good response to a change in its price.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is elastic supply?
PES > 1. A percentage change in price will lead to a greater percentage change in quantity supplied.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is inelastic supply?
0 < PES < 1. A percentage change in price will lead to a smaller percentage change in quantity supplied<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is unit elastic supply?
PES = 1. Percentage change in price will lead to and equal percentage change in quantity supplied.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is perfectly elastic supply?
PES = ± Infinity. Any quantity demanded can be met without changing price, but if price changes quantity supplied falls to 0<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is perfectly inelastic supply?
PES = 0. Supply is fixed regardless of any change in price. Change in demand cannot be met easily.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
Why is a high PES important to firms?
A high PES means firms are able to respond quickly to any changes in price and demand
What can a firm to do make their supply elastic?
- Spare production capacity<br></br>- Improve technology<br></br>- Flexible working patterns
What is the short run?
<br></br>Refers to a period of time in when at least one factor of production is fixed, usually capital.
What is the long run?
Refers to a period of time when all factors of production can be variable
What is the elasticity of supply like in the short run vs the long run?
Short run = Inelastic. Capital is fixed and it takes time to increase factors of production, making it it difficult to react to changes in price.<br></br><br></br>Long run = Elastic. Firms can increase capacity as all factors are variable and have longer to react.
What factors effect PES? (5 factors)
- Levels of stock<br></br>- Spare production capacity <br></br>- Artifcial Limits <br></br>- Factor mobility <br></br>- Time
Why do we see an elastic supply during Recessionary periods?
because if a firm tried to expand their production, they would have a larger pool of labour to hire. Their ability to attract this labour is also high as people need jobs.
What is market equilibrium?
- Supply = Demand<br></br><br></br>- This is the only price where the amount consumers want to buy is equal to the amount producers want to sell.
What is disequilibrium?
Disequilibrium is when the market supply and demand is not equal.
What happens when the market is not at equilibrium?
Functions of the price mechanism will ration away excess supply/demand
How does disequilibrium occur?
When there is excess supply or demand
What happens when there is excess supply?
Excess supply will force producers to cut the price. Supply would contract and demand would extend until the equilibrium price is reached again.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What happens when there is excess demand?
Excess demand will signal to producers that they can generate more profit by raising the price, and will do so. Demand will contract and supply will extend until the equilibrium price is reached again.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What 3 assumptions does the equilibrium model have?
- Ceteris Paribus<br></br>- Supply and demand are independent from each other<br></br>- All markets are perfectly competitive
What does market forces mean?
The free interaction of supply and demand
What effect will a shift in the demand curve (but not in the supply curve) have on equilibrium?
- An increase in demand will cause an increase in price. Supply will extend and form a new equilibrium.<br></br>- A decrease in demand will cause the price to fall. Supply will contract and form a new equilibrium.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What effect will a shift in the supply curve (but not in the demand curve) have on equilibrium?
- An increase in supply will cause a decrease in price. Demand will extend and form a new equilibrium.<br></br>- A decrease in supply will cause an increase in price. Demand will contract and form a new equilibrium.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
If PED/PES is inelastic, what do shifts in the demand/supply curve have the greatest impact on?
Price
If PED/PES is elastic, what do shifts in the demand/supply curve have the greatest impact on?
Quantity
How do the functions of the price mechanism change equilibrium in a free market?
- Signal to firms price is to high/low<br></br>2. Firms incentivesed to change price<br></br>3. Rations away excess demand/supply<br></br>4 Allocates resources effectively
What is joint demand?
two goods are in joint demand if they are complementary e.g. ps4 and ps4 games
What is derived demand?
When the demand for one good leads to the demand for another e.g. an office and office furniture
What is composite demand?
Goods that have a number of uses in the production process. e.g. steel
What is joint supply?
A production process that can yeild 2 or more outputs e.g. cows milk and beef
What does productivity measure?
Productivity measures the output efficiency of firms and economies.
What does input mean?
The 4 factors of production:<br></br>- Land<br></br>- Labour<br></br>- Capital<br></br>- Enterprise
What is the equation for labour productivity?
Output produced in a given time ÷ total number of workers/total hours worked.
How can labour be improved?
- Better technology<br></br>- More training<br></br>- More education
What is meant by division of labour?
Division of labour involves dividing the workforce and allocating specific individuals to specific tasks.
What is specialisation?<br></br>
Is when workers/firms focus on specific tasks to gain a greater degree of efficiency
What are the advantages of specialisation?
- Leads to economies of scale which can reduce long run average costs<br></br>- Reduce cost of training<br></br>- Increase labour productivity
What are the disadvantages of specialisation?
- lack of flexible labour (immoblie workers)<br></br>- bored workers<br></br>- over reliant on 1 firm
What is the law of diminishing returns?
If one variable factor of production is increased while the others stay fixed marginal product will initially rise then fall.
What is marginal product(returns)?
The extra output from adding one extra factor input
What is total product(returns)?
The total output from all factor inputs
What is average product(returns)?
Total product / number of inputs
Why does the law of diminishing returns only apply in the short run?
Because at least one factor of production stays fixed, usually capital.
Explain what happens when MP initially rise then falls. (4 steps)
- Rises initially because of specialisation/utilisation of capital<br></br><br></br>- then falls because fixed factors of production constrain production<br></br><br></br>- for example a pizza shop with 5 ovens wouldn’t benefit from from adding 6 <br></br>or 7 or 8 workers<br></br><br></br>- this all happens because of the law of diminishing returns
Why is total product maximised when marginal product = 0?
- If MP is positive, each factor input employed increases output, if MP is negative each factor employed decreases output.<br></br>- Total product is maximised when adding an extra factor input doesn’t change output in any way
How can productivity be improved?<br></br>
- Better training<br></br>- Better management<br></br>- Improved technology
What is the relationship between MP and MC?
When MC rises, MP is falling<br></br>When MC falls, MP is rising
What is marginal costs (MC) and the equation for it?
Marginal costs is the extra cost of producing one more unit of output<br></br><br></br>MC = change in TC ÷ change in quantity
Why is the marginal cost curve U-shaped?
Law of diminishing returns<br></br><br></br><img></img>
How does marginal cost affect average costs?
When marginal cost < average cost = average cost is decreasing.<br></br><br></br>When marginal cost > average cost = average cost is increasing.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
Why does MC cut AC at its lowest point?
When marginal cost < average cost, average cost is decreasing.<br></br><br></br>When marginal cost > average cost, average cost is increasing.<br></br><br></br>So MC can only cut AC when the AC is neither increasing or decreasing, the lowest point. (MC=AC - Productive efficiency)
What is the difference between fixed and variable cost?
- Fixed cost do not vary with output<br></br>- Variable cost vary with output
How is average cost calculated?
AC = TC ÷ Q
Why is the AC curve U shaped?
- AC is AFC + AVC <br></br><br></br>2. Initially AFC is falling as TFC is spread across more output and AVC is falling as workers specialise and begin to take advantage of underutilised capital<br></br><br></br>3. When LoDM kicks in my AVC rises as fixed factor cause a contraint to my variable factors<br></br><br></br>4. This will offset the effects of my AFC falling and cause AC to rise, explaining why it is ‘U’ shaped<br></br><br></br><br></br><img></img><br></br>
Why are AFC always falling?
Total fixed cost can be spread across greater output<br></br><br></br>So you dividing a constant number by a number that is always increasing<br></br><br></br><img></img>
<br></br>What is economies of scale?
economies of scale is a reduction in average cost due to operating on a larger scale<br></br><br></br>(cost benefits of operating on a larger scale)
What is purchasing economies of scale?
- Large firms have bargaing power with suppliers and can gain discounts for buying in bulk
What is risk-bearing economies of scale?
- When a firm becomes larger, they can expand their production range so they can spread the cost of uncertainty. <br></br>- If one part is not successful, they have other parts to fall back on. can help lower average costs<br></br>eg<span>Major pharmaceuticals companies, such pfizer inc, all undertake research in developing new drufe</span>
What is managerial economies of scale?<br></br>
- Large firms are able to employ specialist managers who can make better decisions and have more experience<br></br><br></br>
What is marketing economies of scale?
- Larger firms can divide their marketing budgets across larger outputs, so the average cost of advertising per unit is less than that of a smaller firm.
What is financial economies of scale?
- large firms can often borrow more money at a lower rate of interest as they are seen as less risky
What is technical economies of scale?
- Large firms can afford to invest in specialist equipment which can help to reduce average cost
What are external economies of scale?<br></br>
<span>External economies of scale occur when a whole industry grows larger and firms benefit from lower long-run average costs.</span>
What are some real life examples of external economies of scale?
- New technology firms have concentrated along the M4 motorway, partly because of access the Heathrow airport, but also because of agglomeration economies<br></br>-<span>Silicon Valley outside San Francisco has become a hotspot for IT related industries. This attracts skilled workers. Firms have to spend less on recruiting skilled labour<br></br></span>- Ruhr valley in Germany has many chemical firms, meaning that are supplies and transport links related to the industry
What is diseconomies of scale?
An increase in average costs as a result of operating on a large scale
Types of internal diseconomies of scale?<br></br>
- Wastage and loss can increase, as materials may seem in plentiful supply.<br></br><br></br>- Communication becomes more difficult, with an increasing number of staff<br></br><br></br>- Worker alienisation: Wokers may feel unomotivated in a large workforce, leading to decreased productivity<br></br><br></br>- Managers may be less able to control as workforce increases
Types of external diseconomies of scale
<span>1- Human resource competition, driving wages up</span><br></br><span>2- Physical resource competition, driving raw material prices up</span><br></br><span>3- Infrastructure competition eg transport congestion<br></br></span>Think hip
How could economies of scale lead to monopolies forming?
- If average costs keep decrease firms can pass these reduced costs on to consumers in the form of lower prices undercutting competition and gaining a bigger market share<br></br><br></br>- This can force other firms out of business and cause a monopoly
What is returns to scale?
Returns to scale describes the effect on increasing the scale of production/output
What is increasing returns to scale?
- When % change in output > % change in input.<br></br>- Increasing all factors of production leads to a more than proportional increase in output.
What is decreasing returns to scale?
- When % change in output < % change in input<br></br>- increasing all factors of production leads to a less than proportional increase in output
What is constant returns to scale?
- When % change in output = % change in input<br></br>- Increasing factors of production will lead to a proportional increase in output
What is the link between economies of scale and returns to scale?
- Increasing returns to scale contributes to economies of scale<br></br>- Decreasing returns to scale contributes to diseconomies of scale<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is the minimum efficient scale of production (MES)?
- MES is the lowest level of output needed to be productively efficient<br></br>- This is the lowest level of output where full EoS can be exploited and after this point a firm no longer receives EoS
What is a LRAC curve? (Envelope Curve)
- A curve thats shows the minimum possible average cost at each level of output.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
Why is the LRAC curve made up of multiple SRAC curves?
- Initially a firm is confined by fixed factors of production<br></br>- Eventually they can increase their factors of production until they are confined again by a fixed level of factors of production<br></br>- this continue and makes multiple SRAC curves which make up the LRAC curve
What can cause an upward / downward shift in the LRAC curve?
External economies and diseconomies of scale.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
Why do some economists argue the LRAC curve is ‘L’ shaped?
- They argue although diseconomies of scale will occur with increasing output this will be offset with continued reduction in average costs.<br></br><br></br><img></img>
Why is the LRAC curve U-shaped?
- In the long run all factors are variable so a firm is able to increase all its factors, reducing average costs.<br></br><br></br>- However as they continue to increase factors of production become harder to manage and coordinate properly, so average costs increase<br></br><br></br><img></img>
Why is the LRAC curve only below or equal to the SRAC curve?
- For a firm to operate on its LRAC curve it must be using the most appropriate mix of factors of production<br></br><br></br>- So in the short run cost can be reduced to this minimum level as some factors are fixed
What is TR and the equation for it?
Total amount from a firms sales<br></br><br></br>TR = Q x P
What is AR and the equation for it?
revenue per unit sold<br></br><br></br>AR = TR ÷ Q
What is MR and the equation for it?<br></br>
Extra revenue incurred from selling an additional unit of a good<br></br><br></br>MR = change in TR ÷ change in Q
Why does AR = Price ?
AR = TR ÷ Q<br></br><br></br>= P x Q ÷ Q<br></br><br></br>= P
How do the curves for AR and MR look when there is perfect competition?
AR = MR = D<br></br><br></br>- The curve is horizontal when there is perfect competition as the firm is a price taker so demand is perfectly elastic<br></br><br></br>- The firm must take the price set by the market and any increase in price will cause quantity sold to drop to 0
How does TR look when there is perfect competition?
- TR is a diagonal straight line going from bottom left to top right<br></br><br></br>- So when AR is constant TR increases proportionally with sales.
Why does AR = D ?
- Average revenue is Total Revenue ÷ Quantity<br></br>- total Revenue = Price x quantity of output<br></br>- each point on the curve represents the price of the product in the market.<br></br>- Price determines the demand for a product, hence average revenue curve is also demand curve.<br></br><br></br>
Why is MR twice as steep as AR?
- When a firm drops its prices is not just dropping its prices for the next unit sold but all the units its selling, even the units its already sold so MR will drop twice as fast as AR
Why is MR = 0 when TR is maximised?
- When MR is positive every additional sale bring additional revenue so TR increasing<br></br>- When MR is negative every additional sale brings less revenue so TR is decreasing<br></br>- TR can only be maxed when MR is neither increasing or decreasing so it is maxed when MR = 0
What is normal profit and when does it occur?
Normal profit is the minimum level of profit required to keep opperating in the long run, but not enough to attract other firms into the market<br></br><br></br>Normal profit is when AC = AR (0 opportunity cost)
What is subnormal profit and when does it occur?
Any economic profit below normal profit<br></br><br></br>AC > AR
In a perfectly competitive industry, what type of profit can be made?
Only normal profit can be made
In the long run, what type of profit is required for a business be sustainable?
Normal profit at the very minimum
What does the existence of supernormal profits signal?
Signals to other firms to enter the market, but barriers to entry and competition must be considered
What is the profit equation?
Profit = Total Revenue - Total Cost
What is supernormal profit?
Any economic profit above normal profit and represents that a firm is making more money than in its next best alternative market<br></br><br></br>AR > AC
When is profit maximised? Why is this
- when MC=MR <br></br><br></br>- If marginal cost is less than marginal revenue, the firm could increase profit by expanding production.<br></br><br></br>- If marginal cost is greater than marginal revenue, the firm could increase profit by reducing output.
How is economic profit different to accounting profit?
Economic profit cosiders both explicit (FC VC) and implicit (opportunity costs) costs<br></br><br></br>Accounting profit only considers explicit costs.
Price takers can only make what type of profit in the long run?
Normal<br></br><br></br><img></img>
What is key about a price making firm?
Supernormal profits can be made<br></br><br></br><img></img>
Why are no supernormal profits made in perfect competition in the long run?
- Although in the short run supernormal profits can be made, this will signal to firms to enter the market, so these supernormal profits will be shared among multiple firms