Eastern Religions Flashcards
Darsana
H… to see and be seen by a particular deity or guru.
Vedas
- 4 collections of hymns and texts w/ 4 subdivisions.
- revered by all Hindus, but not known by most Hindus (not expected to be known)
- two views… Vedas are the sacred reality and co-eternal w/ the sacred reality… the Vedas were composed by the sacred reality
- the rishis (visionaries) compile shruti (that which is heard)
Sight and Sound in Hinduism
Sight… Those to whom the Vedic texts were revealed to are known as rishis (visionaries). Integral part of temple worship is darsana, to see and be seen by a particular deity or guru.
Hearing…. the sacred words of the Vedas are called shurti (that which is heard)… recitation of ancient texts, stories of the gods, chanting prayers, and mediating on mantra are important rituals.
Common Denominators in Hinduism
It is hard to find common denominators in Hinduism. There is no single text, deity, teacher considered supremely authoritative by all Hindus. Extremely pluralistic both in beliefs and practices.
Origins of the term “Hinduism”
- used by Brits to denote non-Abraham Indian religions
- used for incredibly diverse array of groups, who have considerable differences and whose beliefs are often regionally specific
Origins of Indian Civilization
- Harappa civilization- original indus valley civilization, writing, collapsed around 2000 BC (potential reasons… ecological catastophe, invasion).
- Succeeded by Aryans or Indo-Europeans, whose origins are mysterious. May or may not have invaded. Aryan means noble ones, had indo-european language, later ideas of indo-european master race.
Purusha
- myth about the origin of humanity
- purusha is primordial being who is sacrificed… from this sacrifice all created things are created… including humanity
- origin of the four varnas, classes is in the very creation of the cosmos
Varnas
- the are four varnas or classes in Hinduism… these four varnas, mythically, have their origin in the very creation of the cosmos. In this regard, the varnas are a cosmic reality.
- Brahmins (priests) - from Parushas mouth
- Kshatriya (warriors and kings) - from the arm of Parusha
- Vaishya (merchant) - from the legs of Parusha
- Shudra (slave/servant class) - from the feet of Parusha
Vedic Religion
- ritual animal sacrifice, performed by the Brahmins, is important in vedic religion - cosmic harmony
- many deities in Vedic pantheon that are not actively worshipped
- importance of varnas
Upanishads
- fourth part of each of the Vedas
- pursuit of liberation through mental, spiritual quest
- ideas of karma, Dharma, samsara, moksha
- most philosophically speculative component
- diminished importance of ritual, animal sacrifice… feature women teachers
Karma
an individual’s merit
Dharma in Hinduism
your ethical and ritual duty
Atman
the soul. According to Hinduism, and in contra-distinction to Buddhism, the essential you is soul.
Samsara
the wandering of the soul through various cycles of rebirth
Moksha
liberation from samsara… union between Atman and Brahman
Brahman
the divine, ultimate sacred reality, oneness
Hinduism in a Diagram
Atman (the individual soul) -> Samsara - > Moksha -> Brahman
Movement from Atman, multiplicity, to Brahman, oneness.
Smrti
- that which is from memory
- comprised of epics (Itihasas), stories (puranas), ethical manuals (dharmashastras)
Examples of Itihasas
- Ramayana and Mahabharata
Ramayana (plot and upshot)
-The Ramayana is an ancient Sanskrit epic which follows Prince Rama’s quest to rescue his beloved wife Sita from the clutches of Ravana with the help of an army of monkeys
- upshot… Rama is the epitome of virtue as a husband, son, ruler
Sita is the epitome of womanly purity and virtue
Mahabharata (plot and upshot)
- concerned with the struggle between the descendants ofa king named Bharata…. Pandavas vs. Kauravas
- Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, is on the side of the Pandava. He refuses to fight, but serves as a charioteer of the warrior Arjuna, who is interpreted as symbolizing the human soul in quest of liberation
- Arjuna, in the midst of battle, pauses to ask Krishna whether it is correct to take up arms against one’s own kind. Krishna answers that it is correct to fight for what is right, for righteousness (dharma)
- Bhagavad Gita, which is the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna, teaches loving devotion to Krishna and selfless action.
Vishnu
- god of preservation, mercy, compassion
- becomes incarnate at various points in human history for the good of humanity
- examples of incarnations…. Krishna
- eschatological aspect (10th avatar will initiate eschaton)
Shiva
- god of destruction, but destruction for the sake of creation (i.e. creative destruction)
- associated with asceticism
Devi
- female principle of cosmos
- consort of Shiva
- destroyer of demons
Timurti
- lit. three faces
- Hindu “trinity”
- three faces of Brahman (i.e. the divine, ultimate reality)
- Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the preserver, Shiva the destroyer
Brahman vs. Brahma vs. Brahmin
Brahman = the divine, sacred, ultimate reality, oneness Brahma = the creator god, one of the "faces" of Brahman Brahmin= a priest, the priestly caste
Dharmashastras
- ethical part of the smrti
- essentially… your duty depends on your varna and, within that, your gender
- the laws of Manu (the primordial man)
The Laws of Manu
- part of the Dharmashastras, Smrti
- traditionally associated with Manu, who is the primordial man
- establishes ethical principles for all humanity, but differentiates in particulars between varnas and sexes
- the males in the top 3 varnas are twice-born… ritual of manhood and 4 stages of life
- student, family, forest, ascetic
Vedanta
- school of Hinduism, Hindu philosophy
- divided between Shankara (non-dualistic) and Ramanuja (dualistic) factions
Advaita
- faction of the Vedanta school of Hinduism
- non dualistic
- everything is, essentially, one, the same
- Brahman=Atman
- Maya is the illusion that atmas is distinct from Brahman
- Moksha is liberation from Maya
Ramanuja
- faction of the Vedanta school of Hinduism
- dualistic
- reject Advaita, argue that Advaita is incoherent insofar as it must assert either that Maya = Brahman or Maya doesnt = Brahaman, and thus there are two things
- Brahman is both transcendent and immanent
- Brahman does not = atman, but Brahman is immanently present in atman
Yoga
- lit. yoke… yoking atman to Brahman
- pre-Aryan precedents according to archaelogical evidence
- dualistic insofar as yoking soul to Brahman
- physical and mental discipline through which practitioners ‘yoke’ their souls to Brahan
Yoga
- lit. yoke… yoking atman to Brahman
- pre-Aryan precedents according to archaelogical evidence
- dualistic insofar as yoking soul to Brahman
- physical and mental discipline through which practitioners ‘yoke’ their souls to Brahman
- 8 limbs of moral/spiritual, mental, physical discipline that lead one to samadhi (absorption into and union with the divine) which culminates in moksha
Tantra
- esoteric systems of yoking atman to Brahman
- use of mantras, geometric patterns, etc.
South Indian Bhakti
- focus of devotion is Vishnu (god of preservation, mercy, compassion, incarnation) and Shiva (god of destruction and creation together, dance, asceticism)
Alvars
- branch of South Indian Bhakti
- devoted to Vishnu, lover of Atman
- kind of like troubadours speaking poetically of divine love
- prominent women alvars
- Tamil poetry, some of which is written by women, is regarded as holy
Nayanmars
- branch of South Indian Bhakti
- devoted to Shiva
- some reject caste and sacrifice
North Indian Bhakti
- focal point of devotion is Vishnu, or divine without attributes or images (Nirguna Brahman)
- reflects monotheistic, Muslim influence
- God as imageless, formless, w/o attributes … via negative … anything you can imagine is not God… as you do this you approach closer to God
- sants (i.e. holy ones) - those who practice North Indian via negativa
Brahmo Samaj
- argued that sati is not Vedic and thus may be faithfully abolished
- rejected the Purannas as false developments
- Hinduism should be based only on Vedas
- monotheistic… Brahman is God
- religion should be “rational”, sympathetic with hristian Unitarian
- favored public education and schools for women
Arya Smaj
- reject post-Vedic literature
- oppose Sati
- promoted social activism
- true religion compatible with reason, science
- nontheistic… oneness
Ramakrishna Movement
- religions are essentiall the same
- reject role of caste
- mission of social activism, humanism
- advaita (Brahman = atman)
- beginnings of Hindu missionary movement
Affects of British Colonization on Hinduism
- Rise of reform movements
- partition of Muslim India from Hindu India
- personal and/or family law differs depending on the religious tradition
Affects of British Colonization on Hinduism
- Rise of reform movements
- partition of Muslim India from Hindu India
- personal and/or family law differs depending on the religious tradition
- Hindu diaspora… Hinduism as a world religon
Temple Worship
- priests (Brahmins) provide devotion on behalf of community
- murti = divine image; prominent feature of temple worship; conduit to the divine; special presence of divine that is, at the same time, present everywhere; darsana
- prasada = divine gift /// lay people present offerings and, via the auspices of the priest, are presented with prasada
Temple Worship in Hinduism
- priests (Brahmins) provide devotion on behalf of community
- murti = divine image; prominent feature of temple worship; conduit to the divine; special presence of divine that is, at the same time, present everywhere; darsana
- prasada = divine gift /// lay people present offerings and, via the auspices of the priest, are presented with prasada
Open-Air Shrines in Hinduism
- sacred tree
- naga - good, protective, powerful snake
- associated with female devotion… they come seeking protection, prosperity, etc.
Puja
- home devotion
- sacred space with images of gods
- daily devotion often done by women
Erotic imagery in Hinduism
- serves both as a celebration of sensuality in bodily existence and metaphor for union of soul and Brahman
- ex: Linga and Yoni representing masculinity and femininity respectively, and, together, oneness
Forehead Marks
- most famous is the bindi, which is a forehead mark used by married women
- ascetics, priests, and devotees also wear forehead marks
Hinduism and Food
- not all Hindus are vegetarians
- gradations of asceticism
- plant-based diet is believed to promote tranquillity and meditation
- particular foods reserved for particular times, festivals, etc.
- food preparers must be of equal or higher varna as that of served
- if food is prepared by unclean person than food is unclean
Dance in Hinduism
- reflects fact that oneness is not a static reality … Brahman is reality of dynamism and dance is participation in that
- Shiva (multiplicity of arms of SHiva… signifying multiple realities conveyed at once)
Holi
- North Indian holiday that takes place in March or April
- celebration of light, color, renewal of life
- bonfire, dancing, commemorates Vishnu
Navarati
- takes place in September or October
- both the act and object of celebration depends largely on place
- generally… devotion to femal principles of cosmos through processions of women with dolls and bright dresses
- can commemorate Bhagavad Gita and Arjuna
Diwali
- commemoration of darkness and renewal of light
- new clothes, presents
- water, sacredness and ritual baths
Life-Cycle in Hinduism
- Conception
- birth
- initiation rites
- wedding
- funeral
Conception in Hinduism
- life of the person begins at conception and conception itself is ritualized
Birth in Hinduism
- noting exact moment of birth is important for astrology…
Initiation Rites in Hinduism
- traditionally speaking… only for males of top 3 varnas
- twice born … begins student phase of life
- giving and wearing of sacred cord (band between student and teacher… umbelical cord to truth of cosmos)
Weddings in Hinduism
- traditionally arranged … daughter given to husband
- hand-clasping and 7 steps taken around ritual fire… symbolism of companionship
- exchange of garlands and gifts
- new husband presents new wife with necklace or token of religious devotion
Funeral rites in Hinduism
- burial only for ascetics and infants
- cremation is normative standard
- household is ritually obligated not to light fire in house until cremation, eldest son presides, household exists in state of ritual impurity, which is gradually cleansed over year to come
- food and drink offerings to deceased
Three Gems of Buddhism
- Buddha
- Dharma
- Sangha
Buddha
- enlightened one
- Bodhistatva
Bodhisattva
anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated a spontaneous wish and a compassionate mind to attain buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings
Siddhartha Gautama’s Birth
- born sometime between 600 and 400 BC in present day Nepal
- conceived while Gautama’s mother is abstinent, chaste, vowed … miraculous birth
- mother has vision of four divinized beings from ends of earth…. present her to auspicious divine like being (white elephant), who inhabits her
- Siddhartha born from side of his mother… signs imprinted upon his body at birth (e.g. long ear lobes, additional lobe on head, wheels on his feet)
- sages say that this child, born to rules, could either become most powerful kind in the world or greatest sage in the world
Buddha’s life Until Enlightenment
- conceived supernaturally and born with various supernatural signs on his body
- sages say that this child, born to rulers, could become most powerful king in the world or greatest sage in the world
- raised to be king by father, who protects his son from all suffering
- At age 30, Siddhartha discovers sickness, old age, and an ascetic. This realizations causes him to leave palace and go to forest, where he finds a beggar and exchanges clothes with him.
- begs for good, pursues teachers, especially teachers of yoga, founds ascetic community with 5 friends
- pursues extreme asceticism, but never reaches enlightenment
- one day… loses consciousness until world protectors come and revive him… abandons friends and goes to village to eat and drink… all alone
- takes vow to meditate until he reaches enlightenment
- Mara (death) appears and tempts Siddhartha with things, threatens him. Siddhartha not moved. Earthquake occurs… death scared, not Sid., who achieves enlightenment
Buddha’s life post-enlightenment
- Upon enlightenment, Buddha seeks out friends and teaches them
- Middle way… harmony through moderation
- Buddha dies when host acciedentally serves spoiled pork to Buddha and disciples… Buddha knowingly eats it all
- upon death, achieves parinirvana… moksha
Dharma in Buddhism
knowledge … i.e. sacred knowledge
4 Noble Truths
- Suffering (caused by…)
- Desire
- Nirvana (extinguishing of desire… liberation from suffering)… achieved through following…
- 8 - Fold path (essentially… a life of discipline and moderation)
3 Characteristics of Existence
- Anatman… i.e. no soul
- Suffering
- Impermanence
Sangha
- two meanings…
- universal community of Buddhists
- monastic community, who live “moderate” ascetic life, are open to any person from any class
Arhat
- saint, holy one
- one who has achieved enlightenment
- in Theravada, only monastics can be Arhat… in Mahayana, at least hypothetically, anyone can be an Arhat
Relationship between 8-Fold Path and Nirvana, Karma and Nirvana
- 8-Fold Path sets stage for Nirvana, but does not earn or necessarily yield Nirvana
- Karma and Nirvana are not connected in the sense that Nirvana cannot be achieved by having good Karma. That said, one who has achieved Nirvana will certainly have good karma.
3 Vehicles of Buddhism
- Theravada (way of the elders)
- ## Mahayana
Theravada Buddhism
- way of the elders (polemically known as the narrow, or lesser way)
- has canon of normative sacred literature, which features sermons, monastic regulations, philosophical components of Dharma
- emphasizes the uniqueness of Buddha
- Buddha is focal point of meditation, but does not provide devotees with a sort of gracious merit
- non-theistic
- only monastics can be Arhats
- like Lutheranism, traditionally dependent on state support or places where there was state support (e.g. SE Asia)
Mahayana
- greater vehicle… largest subgroup of Buddhists
- does not believe in canon of Theravada (i.e. they believe more texts ought to be considered canonical)
- Nirvana is not just for a few arhats, but is, theoretically, accessible to anyone, anywhere
- Bodhisattvas… beings who have taken a vow of compassion for all humanity that the merit they attain on way to enlightenment will be entirely given to others
3 Bodies
- earthly body … appearance body
- bliss body … divine bodies, beings
- Dharma body … essence of all buddha nature, ultimate reality
Skillful Means
- skillful means are tools, doctrines, mechanisms used by a spiritual teach that are used to lead students to enlightenment
- untruth can be used to bring truth-seekers to truth
- it is ok that there be contradiction, evolution in teaching
Madhyamaka
- lit. middle way
- branch of Mahayana Buddhism
- key to highest spiritual wisdom is awareness of the emptiness or nothingness of all things
- the essence of everything is nothing
- perceiving the nothing in everything
Yogacara
- branch of mahayana Buddhism
- emphasis on emptying yourself of storehouse of perceptions through yoga
Shunyata
- Buddhist, Madhyamaka idea of the nothingness of all things
Pure Land Buddhism
- demographically largest subset
- believe that a particular Bodhisattva, named Amitabha, took extraordinary vows to establish Western Paragise and transmit merit to undeserving so that they can (after death) proceed to Western Paradise, which is an interim en route to enlightenment
- suspicious of those who claim to be truly good… emphasize humility and the freeness, graciousness of merit
- monks can be married
Amitabha
- a particular Bodhisattva, who took extraordinary vows to establish Western Paradise and transmit merit to undeserving so taht they can (after death) proceed to Western Paradise, which is an interim en route to enlightenment
Guanyin
- in China, Guanyin is worshiped as a female consort of Amitabha
- historically, a male… change justified according to skillful means
- being of compassion, who intercedes on behalf of mankind before Amitabha
Zen Buddhism
- in contrast to Pure Land, emphasizes self-power and the attainment of personal enlightenment through rigorous practice of meditation
- according to Zen, one need not not be instructed in enlightenment, nay, one cannot be taught enlightenment … e.g. The Flower Sermon
- use of surprising, shocking, paradoxical, or even violent actions to bring about “satori”… understanding
- transmission of Dharama w/o scriptures, from mind to mind, master to disciple
- zazen and koan
Zazen
in the school of Zen Buddhism…
- sitting meditation whereby one gradually comes to recognize the nothingness
Koan
used in Zen Buddhism..
- paradoxical, mysterious presentation that will cause you intellectual distress and cause you to transcend reason
Goal of Mediation in buddhism
- quiting the mind and heightening mental alertness, with the ultimate goal of breaking throguh into a state of pure mind known as the buddha-mind or emptiness, enlightnement
Vajrayana
- thunderbolt… diamond
- harkens back to hindu goddess Indra
- symbolizes royalty and enlightnement
Vajrayana Buddhism
- originating in India, but most firmly established in Tibet and North (relative to India)
- esoteric… lots of ritual practices in which the secret or hidden plays a prominent part
- Tantric elements from Hindusism… mantras, mandala, erotic imagery (envisions cosmic reality as the interplay of male and female forces and teaches a set of practical techniques for tapping into the spiritual energy produced by that interplay)
Tibetan Book of the Dead
- a set of written instructions to help the dyring achieve liberation during the three stages of the bardo state between death and rebirth
Prayer Flags and Wheels
- sources of cosmic, karmic merit
- you can achieve positive karmic merit through prayer flags bowing in breeze or turning of wheels
- also provides some sort of temporal protection int he hear and now
Dalai Lama
- Yellow Path school only
- incarnation of one particular Bodhisatva
- lamas are monks … Dalai lama is the head of the lama
- there will always be a Dalai Lama… after the current Dalai Lama dies… the particular Bodhisatva will incarnate again. ritual to find Dalai Lama (ex. similar characteristics as past dalai lama… presenting of objects)
Theravada Rituals
- relatively few… because of lack of Bodhisatvas
- Buddha- puja … honor of the Boddha… household devotion…. altar at home
- Dona … charity… to monks. Merit transfer to others by way of ritual.
- Vesak… Buddha Day, which celebrates the birth, enlightenment, and Paranirvana of Buddha… all the same day
- Funeral rituals are essentially the same as in Hinduism
Mahayana
- ritual importance of Bodhisatvas
- ritual commemoration of the dead, veneration of the dead… ex. All Soul’s Day
- Stupa… pilgrimage to to ritual mound, shrine that contain relics of the Buddha or holy men and women
- Temples
- Tea Ceremony in Zen Buddhism… teapot ritually broke and put back together with golden enamel
- sand garden (commemorates beauty and impermanence)
All Soul’s Day
- ritual festival of the dead
- deceased inhabit various layers of reality
- at this point of year, souls of dead released from their layers … they are hungry and cannot eat except this one day of year
- brning of money and ritual food offerings for spiritual prosperity of deceased
Contemporary Issues in Buddhism
- Colonialism and the rise of Buddhist nationalism in the wake of colonialism
- self-immolation
- mass conversion to Buddhism during Indian Independence
- Abortion
- persectutions of non-Buddhists in Myanmar
Chinese Religion During Shang Dynasty
- 1750-1046 BC
- strong belief in existence of spirits… emphasisi on safety, security, prosperity in the here and now
- idea of Shangdi
Shangdi
- a god that was believed in during the reign of the Shang Dynasty in China
- the supreme divine being
- not worshipped directly
- supreme god, in particular, of the ruling family
- authorizing principle of Shang rule
Religion During the Zhou Dynasty
- 1040 to 256 BC
- emergence of the Mandate of Heaven
- Heaven is increasingly considered an impersonal force, principle, essence rather than personal god/spirit/ancestor
- emergence of Naturalism, Confucianism, Taoism
Mandate of Heaven
- idea, developed as the authorizing principle of the Zhou Dynasty, that there is a supreme, divine power in Heaven that authorizes earthly rulers, but is not slavishly loyal to a particular person or family
- important insofar as it establishes the duty of the population to obey a ruler who has the mandate of heaven, and the duty of the ruler, insofar as he wants to keep the mandate of heaven, to be just
Naturalism
- emerged during Zhou Dynasty
- harmony of contrasts
- yin-yang
- complimentary dualism
Kongzi
- Confucius … lived 551-479 BC
- orphan, raised by moth
- married, but then renounces his family life to pursue public service
Datong
- utopian, grand age of commonality
- primordial origin of humanity
- humanity begins as relational fact and not, as is often supposed today, as an individual fact
- slowly but surely humanity loses perfection because of selfishness
Yao, Shun,… Yu
mythical rulers who restore, to some degree, the grand age of commonality
- it is role of govt to restore grand age of commonality
5 Relationships
- emperor - minister
- father - son
- elder brother - younger
- husband - wife
- friends
- human relationships are expression of cosmic pattern,
Ren
goodness, kindness
Li
pattern, ritual
De
moral power cultivated by right relationship between ren and li
Jungzi
- superior person
- analog to saint, sant, or arhat
Confucianism as a Formula
Ren + Li -> De -> Jungzi
Mencius
- emphasizes basic Confucian ideas, but adds concept of Xin (heart-mind)
- belief in human goodness
- importance of strong gov. to allow people to practice their intrinsic goodness
- qi- dynamic, cosmic truth or goodness
Xunzi
- belief that human beings are intrinsically evil
- gov. restrains ppl from acting on this intrinsic badness
- “trinity” … three levels of reality ( heaven, earth, humanity)
Philosophical vs. Religious Daoism
- since philosophic Taoism makes religious claims and religious Taoism shares philosophic underpinnings, the difference between these two schools is a matter of emphasis
Philosophical vs. Religious Daoism
- since philosophic Taoism makes religious claims and religious Taoism shares philosophic underpinnings, the difference between these two schools is a matter of emphasis
- philosophical Daoism refers to an early prototypical Taoism concerned with ideas such as the nature of virtue, cultivation of heart-mind, and good governance… ex. Tao Te Ching
- Religious Daoism is associated with colorful rituals, belief in deities, ghosts, and spiritis, meditation in search of union with the Dao, and the use of drugs in pursuit of immortality or transcendence
- both share funamental elements of self-discipline, quest for transcendence of self, the idea of wuwei, and the assumption that religion and politics as inseperable
Wuwei
- ideal of non-doing or inaction
- means complete emptying of self so as to be completely hallow vessel of the Tao
- hallowness as strength (e.g bamboo)
- metaphor of uncarved block
Confucianism in Han Dynasty
- 202 -220
- established a stable state Confucianism that was nevetheless open to Taoism
- helped to recover Confucian texts, which had been destroyed by previous dynasty, and included Confucian sages in gov
Taoism in Han dynasty
- coexisted with Confucianism in state of syncretism
- codification of Taoist literature
- emphasis on meditative Taoism (e.g. meditating on uncarved block)
- Spiritual and Physical Alchemy
- anti-Han groups like the Celestial Masters and yellow Kerchiefs…
Celestial masters
- anti-Han Taoist group
- believed that Laozi was a supreme divine manifestation who established a covenant between humanity and God… millinarian
Buddhism’s Contra-Chinese Ideas
- Anatman
- asceticism … monastic idea, prosperity as spiritual handicap, renouncing prosperity and renouncing family
What helped Buddhism become more popular in China?
- Laozi as Buddha
- notion of anatman is interpreted as a kind of atman in Pure Land Buddhism (ex. All Soul’s Day)
- concept of Bodhisatvas is compelling… Amithabha and Guanyin
- emp
Characteristic Ideas of Early Taoist Texts
- concept of the tao as the one, the primary force in universe
- the need for inner discipline to reach the deep tranquility necessary to experience unity with that force, and the use of these two elements to achieve good gov.
Colonization of China
- British Empire undergoes industrialization…. requires goods from all over world. become really efficient in the military sciences
- sold opium to the chinese masses despite the fact that it was outlawed in Britain itself.
- led to Opium wars and Taiping rebellion
- Qing gov. had moral power, but not strength… confounded Confucian model of government…. governments have to work in power, not morality
- Qing gov. and Confucianism discredited … rise of Republicanism … Communism… Nationalism
- foreign influence/religion is bad for China… including Buddhism
- Christianity, Islam Buddhism are allowed, but highly regulated in PRC
- after Confucianism fell into disfavor for a number of years, they have returned to some level of favor as PRC has become power state with hierarchy that wants prosperity and order
What is the problem according to Hinduism and what is the solution according to Hinduism?
The problem according to Hinduism, is the endless, karmic cycle of death and rebirth called samsara. This is a problem because, as long as we are caught up in the karmic cycle of samsara, we are separated (either really or illusorily) from Brahman. The solution according to Hinduism is moksha, whereby Atman (the soul) is freed from samsara and united with Brahman, who/which is construed as oneness or the ultimate reality.
What is the problem according to Buddhism and what is the solution according to Buddhism?
According to Buddhism, the basic human problem is suffering, which is the necessary result of desire. In this regard, the solution, according to Buddhism, is to desire nothing. That is to say, the solution is to exist in a state of nirvana.
What is the problem according to Confucianism and what is the solution?
According to Confucianism, the basic human problem is chaos, which is rooted in selfishness. The solution to this problem is social order, which is rooted in ren (goodness, kindness) and li (pattern, ritual).
What is the problem according to Taoism and what is the solution?
According to Taoism, the basic human problem is a sort of lifelessness, which is the result of closing off oneself, intentionally or unintentionally, from the Tao. The solution, according to Taoism, is wu-wei, whereby one is opened to the Tao and, subsequently, is opened to life (which, in some schools of Taoists thought, includes immorality)
How is it possible for Confucianism and Hinduism, in some cases, to be atheistic and still religions?
While both Confucianism and, in some cases, Hinduism are atheistic in the sense that they do not believe in the existence of a personal God or gods, they are nevertheless religions insofar as they assert the existence of a sort of divine or ultimate reality. In the case of Confucianism, this divine reality is construed as an impersonal Heaven, which is the essence or force behind all things. Likewise, atheistic Hindus assert the existence of an ultimate reality, which may be construed as oneness or, philosophically speaking, nothing.
What is the supreme sacredness in each of the religions?
Hinduism= Brahman Buddhism = Oneness... Buddha-Mind Confucianism = Heaven Taoism = The Dao
Founding Myth of Korea
Hwanin -> Father god
Hwanung -> Son of Father god, who mediates between Heaven and Earth… inhabits mountain cave between these two realms
Dangun -> mythical founder of the three kingdoms… son of Hwanung and bear-woman
Dongmyeong
- lit. Holy King of the East
- decendent of sun and river goddess
- born from an egg
- this myth provides matrix for syncretism with Taoism, which regards meditation upon the uncarved block as a way of becoming a spiritual egg and being born again into the Tao
Complimentary Dualism in Korea
- often in traditional Korean religion, mountain gods are paired with dragon gods.
- complimentary duality between mountain and sea
- opens up to complimentary dualism in Taoism and Confucianism
- also, reflects a religion that is very much tied to space
Shamans in Korean Religion
- Shamans in Korean religion are commonly female. Like shamans in other cultures, they are ritual professionals, healers, and diviners who communicate with topographical and/or ancestral spirits.
- The focus on topographical spirits opens up Korean shamanism to syncretism with Taoism, which is particularly concerned with the relationship between human beings and nature. Likewise, the focus on relationship with ancestral spirits opens up Korean shamanism to syncretism with Confucianism, which places a great deal of emphasis on the veneration of ancestors.
Religion in Goryeo Korea
- Korean peninsula is united and Buddhism is established as official religion
- characterized by synthesizing of sudden and gradual schools of Zen Buddhism, and religious syncretism
- Buddhist rulers promoted Confucianism alongside Buddhism as religion of state (not viewed as contradictory or incompatible)… introduction of Confucian academies and exams
- role of shaman is maintained
Religion in Joseon Korea
- increasing Chinese influence
- Confucianism is much more ascendant
- persecution of Buddhism
- shift away form female property rights and to primogeniture
