Earth Science Semester Exam Review Flashcards
Factors that are changed by a researcher during an experiment.
independent variable
a description, representation, or imitation of an object, system, process, or concept
model
an explanation that is consistent with all existing tests and observations…often based on scientific laws
theory
a general statement that describes how the natural world behaves under certain conditions and for which no exceptions have been found
scientific law
If experimental results do not match their predictions, scientists generally will
revise their working hypothesis and retest
the true shape of the Earth
oblate spherioid
percent of Earth’s surface covered by water
71%
thin, solid, outermost zone of Earth
crust
the lower boundary of the crust
Moho
layer of the earth that is under the crust and denser than the crust
mantle
center portion of earth that is composed mainly of iron and nickel
core
upper, cook, brittle part of the mantle and crust
lithosphere
less rigid portion of the mantle that displays plasticity
asthenosphere
deflects solar wind from entering Earth’s atmosphere
magnetosphere
force of attraction that exists between all matter in the universe
gravity
organized group of related objects or components that interact to create a whole
system
anything that has mass and volume
matter
the ability to do work
energy
Earth is considered this type of system
closed
the 4 interacting spheres that make earth a system
atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, geosphere
the approximate age of earth
4.6 billion years
the element that in gas form makes up 78% of Earth’s atmosphere, is used to build proteins and is gained when animals eat
nitrogen
the element that is essential in the formation of fuels and is necessary for life processes
carbon
the cycle of precipitation, evaporation, and condensation
water cycle
evapotranspiration
the process of water in gas form is evaporated or given off by plants and/or animals
how do scientists study deep within the earth?
seismic waves
what process drives volcanic activity on Earth’s surface?
convection
what is the source of heat inside the earth?
radioactive decay
what scientific principle states that energy can be transferred but that it cannot be created or destroyed?
Law of Conservation of Energy or the First Law of Thermodynamics
circles representing distance north or south of the equator…measured 0 to 90
parallels of latitude
each degree of latitude or longitude can be divided into 60 equal…..
minutes
a semicircle that runs from pole to pole
meridian
the angular distance, measured in degrees, east or west of the prime meridian…measured 0 to 180
longitude
a mapmaker
cartographer
type of map projection that would form a tube around the Earth
cylindrical
type of map projection that best shows the north and south poles
azimuthal projection
disadvantage of every type of map projection
distortion away from where the shape (cone, tube, flat paper) touches the globe
what are the 4 cardinal directions?
N, S, E, W
a point on a topographic map where the exact elevation has been measured
benchmark (BM)
used to show elevation on a topographic map
contour lines
the difference in elevation between contour lines
contour interval
every fifth contour line is bolder that the four lines on each side of it for ease in reading…the bold lines are called
index contour lines
the difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points of an area being mapped
relief
represented by a closed contour line with hatchure marks
a depression
what happens to a contour line that crosses a stream or river
it makes a “V” shape that points in the direction the water is coming from
contour lines close together indicate a
steep slope
contour lines spread far apart indicate
flat land or a gentle slope
what is the longitude of the international date line?
180
on which continent is 20 S, 60 W located?
South America
on which continent is 40 N, 100 W
North Americal
on which continent is 90 S, 180 W
Antarctica
a substance that cannot be broken down into a simpler, stable substance
element
an observable characteristic of a substance
physical propert
the manner in which elements join to form compounds
chemical property
smallest unit of matter
atom
an atom with an altered number of neutrons making the atom unstable
isotope
an atom that has gained or lost electrons
ion
type of bond when atoms share electrons
covalent
is soil an example of a solution, a compound, a mixture or an element
mixture
a natural, usually inorganic solid that has a characteristic chemical composition, an orderly internal structure, and a characteristic set of physical properties.
mineral
what do minerals make?
Rocks
type of mineral containing a combination of oxygen and silicon
silicate
the crystalline structure made of 4 oxygen atoms arranged in a pyramid with one silicon atom in the center
silica tetrahedron
property of a mineral that is easy to observe but unreliable because there can be many differences from one mineral to the next depending on other elements in the mineral
color
color of the mineral in powdered form
streak
how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral
luster
reflects light like a polished metal
metallic luster
glassy, waxy, pearly, dull, earthy, brilliant
nonmetallic luster
the tendency of a mineral to split along specific planes of weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces
cleavage
breaking unevenly
fracture
the resistance of a mineral to scratching
hardness
scale to measure mineral hardness
Moh’s hardness scale
range of Moh’s hardness scale
0 to 10
hardness of a diamond
10
ratio of mass to volume
density
crystal system with 3 axes of equal length and an intersection of 90 degrees
cubic
the bending of waves
refraction
containing carbon and is or once was living
organic
a chart showing the order in which minerals form as magma solidifies
Bowen’s reaction series
forming inside the earth and cooling slowly
intrusive
forming outside the earth and cooling rapidly
extrusive
type of crystals formed from slow cooling of magma
large
type of magma from which basalt forms
mafic
type of magma from which granite forms
felsic
texture that has trapped gas pockets
vesicular
texture of obsidian
glassy
magma with a large silica composition
felsic
magma with little or no silica
mafic
igneous rocks that form underground
intrusive
largest intrusion of magma, form the cores of many mountain ranges
batholith
intrusions that cause the formation of small dome-shaped mountains on the surface
laccolith
forms when magma flows between horizontal rock layers and hardens
sill (like a window sill)
magma that has hardened in vertical fractures
dike
a vent through which magma, gases, or volcanic ash is expelled
volcano
igneous rock masses that form on Earth’s surface
extrusions
the process in which sediment is squeezed and in which the size of the pore space between sediment grains is reduced by the weight and pressure of overlying layers
compaction
process in which sediments are glued together by minerals that are deposited by water
cementation
how geologists classify sedimentary rocks
by the processes by which the rock form and by the composition of the rock
this type of sedimentary rock forms when the ions from dissolved minerals precipitate out of water because of changing concentrations of chemicals
chemical sedimentary rock
rock that forms from the remains of living things
organic sedimentary rock
rock that forms when fragments of preexisting rocks are compacted or cemented together
clastic sedimentary rock
how clastic sedimentary rocks are classified
sediment size
the tendency for currents of air or water to separate sediments according to size
sorting
what is the main determinant in the physical characteristics of sediments?
the way they were transported to the place where they are deposited
what impact does being transported a great distance by water have on a sediment
it gets smaller and rounder
layering of sedimentary rock
stratification
stratified layers are called….
beds
sedimentary rocks that are characterized by slanting rock layers are called….
cross-beds
occurs when different sizes and shapes of sediment settle to different levels
graded bedding
a change in the texture, structure, or chemical composition of a rock due to contact with magma
contact metamorphism
a change in the texture,structure, or chemical composition of a rock due to changes in temperature and pressure over a large area, generally as a result of tectonic forces
regional metamorphism
the metamorphic rock texture in which mineral grains are arranged in planes or bands as in schist or gneiss
foliation
metamorphic rocks that do not have bands or aligned minerals
nonfoliated
what are the 3 factors that affect whether rock melts?
temperature, pressure, and the presence of fluids in rock (such as water)
what determines rock texture for igneous rock
rate of magma cooling
what type of rock contains fossils?
sedimentary
a natural material whose concentration of economically valuable minerals is high enough for the material to be mined profitably
ore
many think mineral veins in a small area
lode
a deposit that contains a valuable mineral that has been concentrated by mechanical action such as deposition by water
placer deposit
a resource that forms at a rate that is much slower than the rate at which the resource is consumed
nonrenewable resource
a nonrenewable energy resource formed from the remains of organisms that lived long ago
fossil fuel
fossil fuels consist primarily of compounds of carbon and hydrogen called
hydrocarbons
what are the 4 stages of coal formation?
peat then lignite then bituminous coal then anthracite (pg. 172)
what causes the changes in the type of coal that is formed?
how much water and gases are squeezed out of the peat
what is the parent material of fossil fuels?
microorganisms and plants that died in shallow prehistoric oceans and lakes
the process by which the nucleus of a heavy atom splits
nuclear fission
the element used for nuclear fission
uranium - 235
what cools fuel rods in a nuclear reactor?
circulating water
type of nuclear reaction that takes place in the sun
nuclear fusion (joining of atoms)
a natural resource that can be replaced at the same rate that it is consumed
renewable resource
In Iceland, 85% of the homes are heated by which type of renewable energy?
geothermal
energy from the sun that can be harnessed by both passive and active methods
solar
the preservation and wise use of natural resources to ensure that they last longer
conservation
scientists estimate that worldwide coal reserves will last how long?
about 200 years
