Early Years Flashcards

Question

Week 5 Consider literacy acquisition

Answer 1

Literacy: ability to read and write Written Language: - Develop after spoken - Not all humans acquire (easily) - Requires explicit education - Development = matching written to spoken Development Stage Models (e.g., Frith, 1985; Ehri, 1995) - Logographic stage (pre-school) - Salient visual cues - E.g., SmaLLer misread as yeLLow 'because it's the one with two sticks in it' (Seymour & Elder, 1986) - Expect large objects to have long spellings - Inefficient - Alphabetic stage (aprox. 5+ years) - Use phoneme-grapheme correspondences - E.g., /k/ /a/ /t/ - Convert to known spoken words - Dependent on knowledge of phonology - Must eventually acquire additional strategies - Orthographic stage (approx. 8+ years) - Orthographic knowledge - Morphological knowledge - E.g., dogs, cats, horses -> + - Vocabulary development directly from text - However, strict stage models of literacy largely discredited Literacy Development: Piaget - Sensorimotor - No/limited language skills - Sensory exploration of world - Preoperational - Rapid language development - Children begin to categorise with words - Concrete operational - Use concrete objects to think about abstract concepts - Formal operational - Use language in abstract way Literacy Development: Holdaway - Leaning to read is a natural developmental phase linked to natural oral language skill development - Four key components: 1. Observation 2. Collaboration 3. Practice 4. Performance

Answer 2

- Bi-directional relationship - Exposure to different language forms - Metalinguistic development - Language as an object of thought

Answer 3

- 'Defining the self in terms of group memberships, for example one's ethnicity' (Hogg & Vaughan, 2017) - 'Part of an individual's self-concept which derives from his/her knowledge of his/her membership of a social group' (Tajfel, 1981) - The 'we/us' aspect of our self - concept that comes from our group membership Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) - The theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self-categorisation, social comparisons, and the construction of the shared self-definition in therms of the intergroup defining properties.

Answer 4

Dawes (1991) - The Prisoner's Dilemma - 2000 studies with students - Communication is the key to unlocking 'social traps' - By not cooperating, both parties end off far worse than if they had trusted each other for mutual benefit Sherif's Summer Camp (1953-61) - Three-stage study - 11/12 y/o boys - No pre-existing relationships, few days of forming relationships - 1st study - 22 boys divided into 2 groups to go to a camp on two separate buses - Rattlers & Eagles - 1st week - mostly unaware of the other group's existence, cooperating in various activities - Group identity established - 2nd week -> Win or lose competitions - Series of contests/micro-experiments - Prize for winners -> Conflict - Groups became interdependent - Consistent in-group favouritism, negative image of out-group, strong in group cohesiveness - 3rd week - groups were brought together for non-competitive activities - Groups became less aggressive toward out-group members - Reduction in amount of in-group favouritism - However, hostility was still high - Findings: - Some latent ethnocentrism without intergroup competition - Prejudice, discrimination and ethnocentrism arose as a result of real intergroup conflict - Boys did not have authoritarian or dogmatic personalities - Less frustrated group expressed greater intergroup aggression - In-groups formed even with friends in the out-group - Simple contact did not improve intergroup relations: - Mutual goals -> cooperation - Mutually exclusive goals -> competition - E.g., Zimbardo SPE Zimbardo (1971) - 24 psychologically stable male volunteers at Stanford University - Randomly assigned to be a guard or a prisoner - 2 week study cancelled after 6 days - Some guards behaved in a brutal and sadistic manner - Some prisoners became docile with severe emotional disturbance - Zimbardo explained that they complied with the expected role - Haslam and Reicher (2012) argued that uncertainty resulted in an internalisation of the available identity Key Elements of Prejudice Allport (1954) - Three main components: 1. Cognitive - beliefs about a group 2. Affective - strong feelings about a group (usually negative) 3. Conative - intention to act in a certain way towards a group - Contact hypothesis: - Prejudice as a consequence of people's understanding of ethnic minorities - to tackle it, we need to work on individuals' prejudices - Sherif's realistic conflict theory: - Hostility between groups can be explained in terms of competition for resources - Goffman (1961) - institutionalised norms play a role in creating conflict between people from different groups Pygmalion in the Classroom (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968) - IQ of 'bloomer' students increased based on belief of potential by teachers Masculine & Feminine Tasks (Deaux & Emswiller, 1974) - Assumptions that what skill is for the male, luck is for the female based on gender-stereotyped tasks Backlash (Heilman, et al., 2004) - Students given information about employees in a male-stereotypical ob - Employees identified as male or female - Record of clear or ambiguous success - Previous success was: - Clear: rated equally competent & males more likeable - Ambiguous: males more competent, equally likeable Tokenism (Chacko, 1982) - Equal employment opportunity legislation - Women managers who felt they were hired as a token woman report less organisational commitment & job satisfaction than hired on ability

Answer 5

Stigma - 'Stigmatised individuals possess (or are believed to possess) some attribute or characteristic that conveys a social identity that is devalued in a social context' - Crocker et al., 1998 Deinvididuation - In some situations, people are more likely to abandon normal restrains and become responsive to the group/crowd norms: - Group size - Physical anonymity - Arousing and distracting activities

Answer 6

Defining Aggression - 'Behaviour intended to harm another of the same species' (Scherer et al., 1975) - 'Behaviour resulting in personal injury or destruction of property' (Bandura, 1973) Operationalising Aggression: 1. Analogues of behaviour (punching a doll - Bandura, 1963) 2. Signal of intention (express willingness to use violence - Geen ,1978) 3. Self-ratings (Levens et al., 1975) 4. Rated by others (Eron, 1982) 5. Indirect spreading rumours (Lansford et al., 2012) Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Dollard et al., 1939) 1. Personal goals 2. Psychic energy activated to achieve goals, state of psychological readiness 3. Frustration of goal achievement 4. Frustration-induced undissipated arousal, instigation to aggress, source of frustration too powerful 5. Location of scapegoat, catharsis achieved by displacement of aggression Situational Influence - Kenrick et al. (2003) - Behavioural manifestation of a given genotype depends critically on inputs from, and reactions to, the environment Spanking Children (Straus et al., 2003) - Longitudinal study over 2 years - Recorded how often the child was spanked (0-3+/week) - Positive relationship between spanking and anti-social behaviour of the child - Children who were not spanked showed less ASB after 2 years Violent Lyrics (Anderson et al., 2003) - Listening to violent lyrics - rate previously ambiguous words as aggressive Violent Films (Black & Bevan, 1992) - People who attend screenings of violent films may be generally more disposed to aggression, according to their scores on an aggression questionnaire - Viewing a violent film has an additional effect - aggression scores rise afterwards Placebo (Begue et al., 2009) - Controlled naturalistic field experiment - Male students given non-alcoholic cocktail - Thought it was alcoholic (placebo effect) - Acted more aggressively

Answer 7

- Behaviour that has positive social consequences and that contributes to the physical or psychological wellbeing of another person (Wispe, 1972) - Altruism - an act that is meant to benefit another person rather than oneself - true altruism is selfless Biological Perspective - Humans have innate tendencies to help others, as this promotes survival - Stevens et al. (2005): - Mutualsim: cooperative behaviour benefits the co-operator as well as others - Kin selection - those who cooperate are biased towards blood relatives because it helps propagate their own genes - Fitness altruism - Turner (2005) - natural selection won't favour organisms that sacrifice reproductive fitness for another's benefit Empathy (Batson et al., 1996) - Only women with prior experience showed empathy with a distressed teenager, no men Modelling (Rushton & Teachman, 1978) - Boys 8-11 y/o watched an adult who played a game to win tokens - The adult would donate some tokens by putting them in a bowl for a child pictured in a poster - Verbal reinforcement when the child donated their own tokens - 'good for you'/'that was silly' - Both demonstration and verbal reinforcements had strong effects on how the boys behaved, immediately and after a 2-week interval Bryan & Test (1967) - Modelling for adults - Condition 1 - driver passes a woman whose car had a flat tyre and was being helped by a man, driver then passes another woman by her car needing assistance - Condition 2 - driver only passes 2nd car - Drivers in condition 1 were 50% more likely to help

Answer 8

- People are less likely to help in an emergency when they are with others than when they are alone - The greater the number, the less likely someone is to help Emergency - Involves danger for people or property - Unusual event - Not foreseen - Requires instant action Latane & Darley (1968) - Smoke-Filled Room - Alone - 75% took action - 2 strangers - 38% took action - 2 passive confederates - 10% took action 5-Stage Cognitive Model (Latane & Darley) 1. Attend to what is happening 2. Define event as an emergency 3. Assume responsibility 4. Decide what can be done 5. Give help Gaertner & Dovidio (1977) - When no potential other helpers available - white women slightly likely to help black/white confederate who had suffered an emergency - When other helpers were available, they were not inclined to assist black confederate Hornstein (1970) - People observed a model returning a lost wallet - Model was: - Pleased to help (Condition 1) - Neutral about helping (Condition 2) - Displeased about bother (Condition 3) - Participants then found a lost wallet - Likelihood to help: 1 > 2 > 3 - Learning by vicarious experience Kitty Genovese Murder (1964) - In the half an hour it took to kill her, no one helped - Half an hour later, anonymous call 'didn't want to get involved' - 38 people heard the screams, but did not act Explaining the Bystander Effect - Diffusion of responsibility - passing the responsibility to act to other people - Audience inhibition - fear of a social blunder - Social influence - passive behaviour of others represent a model for how to act

Answer 9

Types of Peer Relationships Peer group - One that is of equal standing with another - Horizontal or symmetrical - Both parties have equal amounts of social power - First two years: - Show clear interest in other infants - Direct gaze, gestures and smiles at other infants - Respond to other infants' play behaviours (Lewis et al., 1975) - Interactions become longer and more patterned - usually involving mutual imitation - Children show preference for some peers over others - Show changes in behaviour when excluded (e.g., Tremblay-Leveau & Nedal, 1996) - Changes with age - Increased interactions through environments - Group play increases (Smith, 1978) - Groups become larger (Eiferman, 1970) - Become increasingly segregated by sex over middle childhood - by around 6 onwards (Maccoby, 1998) - Gender differences in group size and activities (Maccoby, 1998) - Changes in later adolescence from same-sex to mixed-sex 'cliques' Friendships - Close, mutual and positive relationship that offers intimacy, companionship, and emotional and social support - Key features: (Newcomb & Bagwell, 1995) - Reciprocal - Intimacy - More intense social activity - More frequent conflict resolution - More effective task performance - Characteristics of friendships (Bukowski et al., 1994) - Companionship - Help - Security - Closeness - Low conflict - Interactions among friends - Differences in pretend play and more communication (Howes et al., 1994) - More conflict resolution (Fonzi et al., 1997) - negotiating, sharing, making compromises - Task performance (Azmitia & Montgomery, 1993) - Better problem solving among friends - Discuss ideas and critique constructively - Links with cognitive development Bully-victim - Verbal, physical, indirect aggression - Occurrence varies - Bully characteristics: - Gender differences - Peer status - Deficient social skills / skilled manipulators - Often unnoticed by teachers and remains 'secret' - Consequences: loneliness, avoiding school, depression, low self-esteem (e.g., Hawker & Boulton, 2000) - Can be a group process - seek social dominance, and often get it - Bystanders take on participant roles: (Salmivalli, 2010) - Assistant - Reinforcement - Outsiders - Defenders - Interventions should be targeted at peer-group level - Friends can act as buffers against effects of victimisation

Answer 10

Sociometry - measuring children's social standings; their position or status within the peer group - Watching children's behaviour - Asking teachers - Asking children Sociograms - Represent a child's relationship with others in their peer group - Early studies - liking & popularity; later studies included dislikes - Status types: popular, controversial, neglected, rejected (Coie, Dodge & Coppotello, 1982) Peer Status: 'Rejected' Children - Differences in play behaviours (e.g., Dodge et al., 1983) - Different types of rejection (Cillessen et al., 1992) - Rejected-aggressive, rejected-submissive - Long-term, 'rejected' children have the most sociometric stability (Coie & Dodge, 1983) Escaping 'Rejected' Status - Peer rejection can amplify behaviours that lead to further rejection - E.g., a lack of social support to help with coping and adjustment - Other factors to consider: - Group norms - Social visibility - In-school difficulties - Peer status is part of a developmental pathway Peer Status and Outcomes - Peers are important for developing social, emotional and cognitive skills - Influential in shaping behaviour, language, values and beliefs, emotional regulation, and psycho-social functioning - Associated with a range of social and psychological outcomes, but causation is difficult to establish - Academic performance and attendance - Mental health symptoms

Answer 11

Preschool (3-4 yrs) - start of stable relationships form - Instrumental relationships - mostly about liking the same things, spending time together, doing shared activities - Conflict and hierarchies among toddlers initially revolves around access to objects (toys), but becomes more about difference of opinion Friendships in Middle Childhood - Instrumental to intimate relationships - Friends have similar attitudes and values - Friendship becomes more about caring, loyalty, trust, shared feelings, etc. - Friendship expectations change: Bigelow and La Gaipa (1980) - Issues with bullying, victimisation and aggression Friendships in Adolescence - Focus on intimacy, self-disclosure and emotional support becomes increasingly important - Groups are increasingly based on values and beliefs rather than shared activities - Friendships are fairly stable - particularly better-quality friendships - Romantic relationships begin Differences in Friendships - Friendships are important, but quality > quantity - Aggressive children have aggressive friends, less stable friendships, and fewer friends - Socially withdrawn children have poorer quality friendships - Temperament, attachment, and ability to regulate emotions are among predictors of friendship and peer relations

Answer 12

Prosocial - Benefit others - Driven by emotional processes: empathy and sympathy Antisocial - Intentional behaviour that hurts another person - Largely predicted by temperament - 'lack of control' - Difficulties regulating emotion and more likely to experience negative emotions - Can be related to adult antisocial behaviour (Capsi et al., 1995)

Answer 13

- Functional: purpose of behaviour - No external goal - Structural: behaviours performed - Play signals - Repeated / fragmented / exaggerated / re-ordered (Loizos, 1967) - Distinct, not opposing approaches Descriptors (Features) of Play 1. Intrinsic motivation 2. Positive affect 3. Nonliterality 4. Flexibility 5. Means/ends Garvey (1991) - Play: - Is pleasureable - Has no extrinsic goals - Is spontaneous and voluntary - Involves active engagement on part of player - Has certain systematic relations to what is not play

Answer 14

- Motivates children to learn - Play must have a function (Vandenberg, 1978) - Exploration-play application sequence (Vandenberg, 1984; Wilson, 1975) - Helps children gain skill in manipulating objects (Ceyne & Rubin, 1983) - Build confidence - Linked to language learning - Linked to cognitive and social development (Lillard, 2002 - Piaget, 1962 - Pelligrini, 2000) - Learn adult roles - Understand emotions (Denham, 1986) - Development of friendships (Gottman, 1983)

Answer 15

- Parten (1932): 42 children aged 2-4.5 1. Unoccupied 2. Solitary 3. Onlooker 4. Parallel 5. Associated 6. Cooperate

Answer 16

*3 Types of Play* 1. Practice/sensori-motor 2. Symbolic/representational 3. Games with rules - Very simplified view - Move to detailed explorations of play: - Smilansky (1968) - 4 stages 1. Functional 2. Constructive 3. Dramatic 4. Games with rules Sensori-Motor Play - Corresponds with sensori-motor period (approx. 0-2 years) - Concern with bodily sensation and motor development - In 2nd year: gain awareness of functions of objects in social world Symbolic/Representational Play - Approx. 2-6 years - Children capable of reasoning that one subject can symbolise another - Children learn and take on social roles (& gender roles) - Act out experiences, e.g., via role play Games With Rules - Begins school age (~5 yrs) - Most prominent form of play in middle childhood (Piaget, 1962) - Explicit rules to govern behaviour - Winners and losers - Children learn to negotiate, reason and compete Problems with Piaget's Views - Assumes play inextricably linked to cognitive development - Children only do certain types of play at certain ages - Limited perspective - Challenged by others: - E.g., Garvey (1991): play is inherently social from outset

Answer 17

Cycling Possible Explanations: - Front rider provided suction that pulled the cyclist along, helping to conserve energy - Front rider provided shelter from the wind - Solo cyclists worry that they are not going fast enough - this exhausts their muscles and brain, inhibiting performance - Friends usually rode as pacers and this kept cyclists' spirits up - Cyclist is hypnotised by wheels in front - rides automatically, leaving more energy for final burst - Presence of another arouses 'competitive instinct' that releases 'nervous energy' Triplett (1898) - Children were alone or in pairs - Task = fishing reels turned a silk band around a drum, connected to a pulley by a chord - flag had to travel around pulley 4x - Results - children were faster, slower or not impacted by being in a pair - Faster children had the 'arousal of competitive instincts and the idea of a faster movement' - Slower children were 'going to pieces'

Answer 18

History - Medieval - identity shaped by family membership, social rank, place of birth - 16thC - started to change due to issues including secularisation, industrialisation and enlightenment - Early 20thC - Psychodynamic self - 1990's - Over 31,000 articles about the self in the past 20 years (Ashmore & Jussim, 1997) Searching for the Self 1. Self assessment - seeking out new information about ourselves to find out what sort of person we really are 2. Self verification - seeking out information that confirms what we already think we know about ourselves 3. Self enhancement - motivation to promote a favourable image of oneself - Sedikides (1993) - Enhancement stronger than verification, stronger than assessment Looking Glass Self Van Gyn et al. (1990): - 4 Conditions: 1. Power training on bike + imagery 2. Power training on bike w/o imagery 3. No power training + imagery 4. No power training, no imagery - Findings: - Power training improved performance - Using imagery improved performance - Conc: imagery improves self-conception, which improves performance Harre et al., (2005) Driving - Young drivers compared attributes of their driving behaviour with their peers - Most showed a self-enhancement bias - above-average ratings of 5, 6, 7 Medvec et al., (1995) Meta Perspective - Shrauger & Schoeneman (1979) - Reviewed 62 studies - People did not see themselves as others saw them - They saw themselves how they thought others saw them Self Awareness - Carver and Schier (1981): 2 forms of self 1. Private self - try to match behaviour with internal standards 2. Public self - presenting yourself in a positive light Steele (1975) - Mormon women received 2 phone callsL - Called to ask if they would list everything in their kitchen to help with a new community food cooperative project (baseline 50% agree) - Few days later - called by a 'pollster' and told one of 3 things: 1. A. uncooperative with community projects (95%) 2. B. Not concerned about driver safety (95%) 3. C. Cooperative with community projects (65%)

Answer 19

- Ideal self - Actual self - Ought self - Priming ideal self = dejection - Priming ought self = agitation

Answer 20

- Wundt (1879) - first dedicated laboratory to experimental psychological research - Freud - psychoanalytic school of psychology - Early 1900's - rapid growth of laboratory research in the USA - Allport (1924) - social psychology would only flourish if it became an experimental science - Murphy and Murphy (1931-1937) - book, Experimental Social Psychology

Answer 21

Positivism - Non-critical acceptance of scientific method as the only way to arrive at true knowledge Reductionism - Explanation of a phenomenon in terms of the language and concepts of a lower level of analysis Level of Explanation - Types of concepts, mechanisms and language used to explain a phenomenon Doise (1986) - Need to construct theories that formally integrate, or 'articulate', concepts from different levels

Answer 22

- Experiments are not always possible, practical or ethical - Archival research - assembles data from a range of sources - Janis (1972) - archival research regarding Bay of Pigs Case Study - Collection of data regarding a single case (e.g., individual, group or community) - Range of methods such as interviews, questionnaires, observations or document analysis Field Study - Like field experiment but without any interventions or manipulation