EARLY YEARS Flashcards

Question

What is fundamental attribution error (FAE) What is ultimate FAE Four reasons for FAE

Answer 1

Bias in attributing another's behaviour more to internal than to situational causes Ultimate FAE - FAE applied to group level Focus of attention - actors behaviour attracts more attention then background Differential forgetting - situational causes may be forgotten more easily then dispositional Cultural differences - western cultures predispose people cause events, not situations Linguistics - favours dispositional attributions

Answer 2

Correspondence bias - behaviour viewed as reflection of personality. Reflects stable internal qualities FAE - overemphasise personal factors and underestimate situational factors

Answer 3

Publicly making advance external attributions for our anticipated failure or poor performance in a forthcoming event Setting up excuses can use later if we do poorly on task To protect self esteem - Berglas & Jones Preserve or enhance self concept Convince self and others in control and good Reflects tendency for people to cling to illusion of control - belief of more control over our world then sure.

Answer 4

Piaget stage theory Vygotsy social cultural perspective/ZPD Case neo-piagetain theory Siegler's overlapping wave theory Theory of core knowledge

Answer 5

Sensori motor - birth-18/24 months Pre operational - 18/24 months-7 Concrete operational - 7/8 - 11/12 Formal operational - 11/12+ Constructivist approach, sees children constructing own knowledge Child has active role Schemas/Scheme - basic unit of understand. Cognitive structure forms basis of organising actions and mental representation so can understand world Adaption - where schemas can change, child will adapt schemas based on environment Assimilation - perception of new information, new situation perceives new information via senses Accommodation - taking of new information, child processes Equilibrium - when new situation can be easily assimilated

Answer 6

Substages: Reflexive schemas; Primary circular reactions; Secondary circular reactions; Co-ordination of secondary schemes; Tertiary circular reactions; Beginning of thought Key behaviours: All information comes from sense Learn via environment, reflexives No object permanence - hidden toy experiment - cannot see = not there Criticisms: Baillaregon 1985 - OP found at 3.5 months, but cannot actively search as so young. Used violation of expectancy procedure instead Bower & Wishart 1972 - found infants at 4 months showed early signs of OP Meltzoff and Moore 1977 - found deferred imitation at 6 weeks

Answer 7

Symbolic function substage: Can mentally represent options that not physically present Pretend play - children >2 pretend to drink from a cup but won't pretend its a hat, Tomasello Understand symbolic nature of drawings, picture of banana, but won't try to eat Intuitive substage: Begin to classify, order and quantify Reasoning based on perception and intuition not rational thinking = limitations in reasoning ability Key behaviours: Egocentrism - see from one POV - 3 mountains task More imaginative play Display animism - speak to bear ect Centration - focus on one variable at time Cannot conserve - beaker task Criticisms: Hughes 1975 - mountain task too hard, repeated using policeman and boy, 90% of 4yr olds can do = lose egocentrism at 4 Donaldson 1978 - beaker test, issues with wording, asking if there is more, instead of is it the same = leading Rose & Blank 1974 - repeated question over and over leading to children doubting

Answer 8

Key behaviours: Begin to think logically on concrete events Ideas based on reasoning Decentration, compensation, reversability Criticisms: Culture and schooling affects Piagetian tasks - Rogoff 2003 - Hausa, Nigerian village who rarely go to school did not understand centration until 11

Answer 9

Key behaviours: Think conceptually and hypothetically Abstract thinking Advanced problem solving

Answer 10

STRENGTHS + Focus on active learning - children active in learning process. Helped shift educational methods towards more hands on learning + Wide impact - child centred learning. Inspired research and shaped educational practice worldwide. Teaching practices incorporate his principles. Focus on individual differences, occurs at different times for children, focus on teachers responding to individual needs WEAKNESSES: Experimental: Underestimate: - Gelman 1982, turtle conservation task more real life, 3 year olds can pass - Even some adults fail conservation tasks, no research having 100% pass Language - Donaldson 1978 - beaker test said is there more, not is there same amount - leading wording - Rose & Blank 1974 - repeated questions over and over leading to doubt Social concerns - Naughty teddy task - McGarrigle & Donaldson 1979 - teddy moved counters un or intentionally. If was naughty, did on purpose child more reluctant to answer correctly - Bower & Wishart 1972 - found infants at 4 months showed early signs of OP - Task complexity Hughes 1975 - 3 mountain task, replicated with policeman and boy 90% of 4yr olds passed Theoretical: - Culture bias - Based on Western children. Different cultures emphasise different skills/experiences. Rogoff 2003 - Hausa a Nigerian village, rarely go to school, did not understand conservation tasks until 11 - Stage theory criticised - rigid stages questioned. Research shown that cognitive development can be more fluid ie Vygotsky ZPD

Answer 11

Vygotksy sociocultural theory of development + ZPD - 1978 Bruner scaffolding 1960 Case neo-pigetian 1972 Sieglar overlapping wave theory 1966 Theory of knowledge Spelke

Answer 12

Looking into children interact socially and how culture influences development Children part of society and collaborators in their own learning with adults Personal and social experience cannot be separated - culture is crucial

Answer 13

Learning takes place within zone of proximal development 3 developmental levels Lowest level - level of development - alone Upper level - cannot do yet Everything between - proximal development Zone of proximal development = difference between what learner can do alone and can do with help. Use of scaffolding As developing, new skills increase, levels increase - ZPD moves up with development Each domain has own zone, can differ in attainment

Answer 14

Developed Vygotsky ideas Scaffolding Child centred learning

Answer 15

Tasks where child needs guidance, adult breaks down task into more manageable pieces Only works if fit current level of performance As becomes more competent and masters task, adult gradually withdraw guidance Child internalises guidance and behaviours given in social interactions - becomes part of private speech - mediates into thinking and planning

Answer 16

+ Scaffolding to assist children in learning. Challenging tasks helped with scaffolding then can increase zone. Higher levels. Repeat + Joint construction of knowledge - collaborative learning + Importance of language + Underpinned education. Application how teachers can help all students - Vygotksy criticised for placing too much emphasis on social interaction, individual discovery also occurs

Answer 17

P: development where organism grows and changes through lifespan V+B: development is what a child can do alone and with help P: Stage theory - sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational V+B: zone of proximal development, what learner can do alone and with help P: criticised for emphasis on role of individual, ignore culture V+B: too much emphasis on social interaction, ignoring independent discovery

Answer 18

Cognitive development occurring in 4 stages like Piaget: Sensori-motor stage: 0-2 Interrelational stage: 2-8 Dimensional stage: 5-11 Vectorial stage: 11-19 Adopted information processing perspective Attributes changes within each stage across to increases in central processing speed and WM capacity 3 reasons for increased WM: brain development, automatisation, formation of central conceptual factors

Answer 19

Overlapping wave theory: At all times child has number of strategies that can be used to solve problems Over time less efficient strategies are replaced by more effective Accounts for variations of childs thinking and continuous changes of thinking Mechanisms that results in strategy variation not clear + Accounts for variation of child's thinking and for continuous changing in thinking - Mechanisms that results in strategy variation not clear

Answer 20

Children are born with 'core knowledge systems' that support basic intuitions about world Humans are born with small number of innate domain specific systems of core knowledge Expands and becomes elaborated with experience + Cross cultural studies support - Amazon group, lack words until 5 but can compare and add large approximate numbers + Accounts for young's ability to perceive and reason about object properties, numbers and geometrics - Controversial, cannot provide adequate account of child development

Answer 21

For security - using mother as safe base Protect child from danger - sense of responsibility Important for mental health Maccoby 1980 if displays have attachment 1. Proximity to caregiver 2. Distress on seperation 3. Happy on reunion 4. Orient actions to caregiver

Answer 22

Biological researcher Studied evolutionary context Children actively involved in attachment relationship 1. No discrimination - pre attachment, little discrimination between responses familiar and strangers 2. Preferential people - recognise caregiver, comforted but not distressed when leave - 5/7 months 3. Preferential proximity - being to protest when caregiver leaves room, attachment near enough formed - 7/9 months 4. Goal corrected partnership - child and caregiver focus upon each others needs. Caregiver gives instructions, child follows Child cries, caregiver responds - 2/3 years 5. Lessening attachment - developed abstract thought and trust Trust begins, adult trusts will come home, child trusts will be looked after 3/8 years

Answer 23

That mother love in infancy is as important for mental health as vitamins are for physical Leads to future issues Critical period for attachment formation until 2.5 years, if passed = issues in later life Observable distress when child separated from mother - no distress suggests used to being on own Developmental delays in institutionalised children - care children who do not have one persistent CG = developmental delays Bowlby 1944 - 44 Juvenile thieves study: 44 thieves compared to 44 non 17/44 thieves had experienced early prolonged separation from mothers before 5 years 15/17 classified as affection less psychopaths 2/44 non-thieves had experienced separation = link between disruption to attachments in first 5 years and maladjustment + Practical application - improvements in institutional care - provide children with more food, comfort + Government offers more maternity leave - increased awareness of importance - Induced guilt in working mothers - made feel bad about leaving and working - Generally disputed - other factors play a part, ie genetics seen in twin studies - Investigator effects - Bowlby designed self reports and results - observer effects and research confirmation bias when AP Harlows monkeys: Isolated 8 monkeys from mother Cage with 2 surrogate mothers - cloth or wire All monkeys clung to cloth for support even if not fed = infants need comfort Those isolated who did not interact = deprived/socially inept Could not engage with other moneys, when released died off = issues

Answer 24

Previous only mother Schafer & Emerson 1974 7-9 months: 29% infants <1 18 months: 87% infants <1 33% had strongest attachment to someone other then mothers Cross cultural findings: Fox 1977 Israeli Kibbutzim - community in Isreal where children 1-2 years old in nursery with nurse Infants attached to both mother and nurse Agricultural societies Mothers work in field leaving infant in village, shared responsibility

Answer 25

Measure for assessing how well attached infant is to mother/caregiver 1. Mother and infant in room, infant explore for 3 mins 2. Stranger enters room, sits for1 min, plays with infant for 1 min 3. Mother leavers, stranger plays with infant then withdraws >3mins 4. Mother returns, stranger leaves discreetly, mother settles infant, 3 mins 5. Mother leaves infant alone >3mins 6. Stranger enters, attempts to settle, withdraws >3mins 7. Mother returns, stranger leaves discreetly, mother settles infant Session ends after 21mins Recorded all interactions, rated infants behaviour on: 1. Behaviour directed at caregiver 2. Seeking contact, maintaining contact, distance interactions, avoidance and resistance to contact 3. Responses to stranger

Answer 26

Type A: Avoidant - insecure attachment; child avoids caregiver, no stress on departure Type B: Secure - actively seeks contact with caregiver, stress on departure but can be calmed Type C: Ambivalent/Resistance - mixed emotions, stress on departure, mixed when back, seek and resist on reunion 65% - secure/B 21% - avoidant/A 14% - ambivalent/C Limitations Cross cultural findings US: 70% B; 20% A; 10% C - Van Ijzendoorn + Kroonenberg 1988 Germany: 40-50% A - avoidant - Grossman et al 1981 Japan: 35% C - resistant - Miyake et al 1965 Takahashi 1990 - needs to be interpreted carefully across cultures Japanese infants more distressed when alone as never left alone at 12months. Cole 1998 - SS not valid indicator. Need to refine meaning of categories according to local culture

Answer 27

GENETICS: O'Connor & Croft 2001 - twin studies 70% concordance rate for MZ and 64% DZ = 14% variance in attachment type due to genetics, 32% shared environment, 53% due to non-shared environment OTHER ENVIROMETNAL FACTORS: Maternal sensitivity hypothesis: maternal insensitivity will predict poor attachments. If do not fully respond to childs needs = insecure McMahon et al 2006 - depressed mothers tend to have insecurely attached infants Maternal mind-mindedness: Meins 2001 - mother treats infant as an individual with a mind, not a creature to be satisfied Longitudinal study - maternal sensitivity and maternal mind-mindedness both independently predicted secure attachments at 12 months INTERNAL WORKING MODEL: Cognitive structures embodying memories of day to day interactions with attachment giver If incorrect schemas and internal WM = unsuccessful form of attachment

Answer 28

Main & Solomon 1986, 1990 - Type D: Insecure disorganised - inconstant/bizarre behaviour Characteristics seen as signs of unresolved stress and anxiety More common in: abused, maltreated, depressed mothers, parental addictions May come from: Fear of caregivers Parents unresolved mental state

Answer 29

AAI = way to measure attachment in older adolescents/adults Semis structured interviews that probes memories of early childhood experiences, basic set of questions, transcripts coded on how person reflects, evaluates, how coherent total is Autonomous/Secure (B) Dismissing (A) Preoccupied/Enmeshed (C) Unresolved mourning/Loss (D)

Answer 30

Autonomous/Secure (B) - secured relationship with parental figure Can recall own early attachment related experiences objectively and openly even if negative Dismissing (A) - dismiss attachment relationships Little concern, value or influence Preoccupied/Enmeshed (C) - seem preoccupied with dependency on own parents Still actively struggle to please them Unresolved mooring/Loss (D) - experienced trauma or death of attachment figure Not come to terms or working through mourning process

Answer 31

KOLUCHOVA TWINS 1972 Reared from 1.5-7 years by psychopathic stepmother & inadequate father Twins in isolation, no school When found at 7 - barley walk, poor fine motor skills, no spontaneous speech Between 7-10 rapid development, school at 10 CASE OF GENIE - curtis 1977 Severely neglected from >2-13 years Daytime chained to potty, tied in sleeping bed, no interactions Made non-verbal sounds, not toilet trained, could not walk Still good perception and spacial reasoning Showed language is needed in child development

Answer 32

Barrett 1999 - code in which spoken sounds is used in order to encode meaning Symbolic communication admitted between two or more people Rule governed Important for social communications Intellectual in nature Can be written or signed

Answer 33

PHONOLOGY: = perception and production of sounds Phonemes = smallest unit of sounds Linked together, natural process as speech is continuous ORTHOGRAPHY = study of letters Graphemes = smallest unit of text Letters correspond to phonemes Hanna et al 1966 - looked into adding e on end of different words - changes them SEMANTICS = meaning of units of language Morphemes = smallest meaningful unit of language Phonemes unless alone, combined to make morphemes Phrases and sentenced learned through rules, governed via grammar and syntax as can change meaning of said phrases PRAGMATICS = non linguistic cues ie social cues Helps communicate with others - communicative function - body language to guide what being said Adjust language to context ie WhatsApp vs email - child needs to learn to adapt language to situation are in Helps understand when someone has finished talked, when to respond

Answer 34

Prelinguistic - the new born Newborn - reflexive vocalisations 1 month - learn to discriminate all phonemes Different cries 2-3 months - Copy parents more Coo, smile, laugh 4-6 months - Babbling (repetitive sound combination) or echolalia (repetition or echoing or words or phrases have heard) 6-9 months - canonical babbling Start to develop behaviours, some only directed at familiar people 9-12 months - learning more about world Modulated babbling More active role/explore more

Answer 35

Nativist - Chomsky + Pinker Everything is biological and use innate abilities to develop linage Behaviourist - Skinner Learn via environment and observe Interactionist Combines both perspectives, can develop and acquire language through environment but also potentially via innate tendencies

Answer 36

CHOMSKY 1957 Surface and deep structures in languages, rules of transformation that connect the two Universal grammar - all humans share common underlying structure. Generative grammar - syntax of any language can be described by set of rules that generate all possible grammatical sentences of language Language is innate, born with ability to develop language naturally Born with Language Acquisition Device (LAD) - children born with innate mechanism to acquire language PINKER 1994 Complex language is universal as children re-invent generation after generation Investigated Pidgin languages - language invented by labourers from sugar plantations, used to communicate with one another No consistent word order, prefixes, tenses ect Points out in each case - meaning has to be filled by listener since language does not have grammatical resources to convey complex messages Children who grew up in Hawaii - language transformed by children learning and changing them into full languages Hawaiian Creole now, became grammatical EVALUATION + Explains universal patterns - accounts for universal states of language acquisition across languages and cultures + Poverty of stimulus - ability to produce new sentences. Limited language yet can still produce and understand new complex sentences = internal rules of grammar + Cross cultural similarities - children seem to follow similar developmental patterns of acquiring language, supporting idea of innate capacity - Lack of evidence for LAD - little concrete evidence that specific area exists in brain, too theoretical - Underestimate use of interaction - Vygotsky + Bruner emphasise need for social interaction aspect of language development. Key role in teaching children how to use language in context

Answer 37

SKINNER 1957 Learn through imitation - imitating speech hear around them. When repeats word or phrase correctly reinforced Stimulus-response - learn via SR interactions, specific sounds or words are associate with specific objects or actions. Over time build up vocabulary and grammar through repeated exposure Tabula Rasa - born blank slate, environmental stimuli key factor in shaping language. Language learning no different from any other skill EVALUATION + Emphasis on environment - importance of social interaction and reinforcement in language development. Aligns with research showing children's language skills improve via communication with caregivers + Practical application - reinforcement successfully used in language teaching and speech therapy. Especially those with language delays and other developmental issues - Cannot explain when never taught - as demonstrated in Nativist approach, how can learn new language never been explicitly taught, behaviourist cannot - Over simplification/Reductionist - fails to account for complexity and creativity of language use - Cannot explain cross cultural similarities - exposed to different types of linguistic input, yet all develop language in similar stages = more to then reinforcement

Answer 38

Frith 1985 then Ehri 1995 Logographic stage Pre school stage Learn literacy skills by looking at similar words - use salient visual cues, look at important part of word and use as visual cues for learning Expect large objects to have large spellings Insufficient due to lack of experience Alphabetic stage Approx 5+ years Concerned with sound text relationships - use phoneme-grapheme correspondences Convert known spoken words - limited experiences, only use words have been shown before hand Dependent on phenology - spell how things sound Where more education and additional strategies are important - teachers useful in explaining to children what grammar is, how to correct spelling ect Orthographic stage Approx 8+ Concerned with sound text relationship - spelling systems of language, how things are spelt Morphological knowledge - structure of words, putting s on ends of words to make plural Vocab development often through reading and direct from text, less from parents and teachers

Answer 39

Language development reflects stages of cognitive development through child is progressing Understanding comes from existing knowledge of world Sensori-motor stage - birth-2 years No/limited language skills Childs intellectual skills rooted in sensorimotor experiences - hearing, seeing, touching Pre-operational stage - 2-7/8 years Rapid language development - input from parents and fact children in mobile environment Begins to categorise words - starting to learn different words mean different things Concrete operational stage -7/8-11/12 yrs Use concrete objects to think about abstract concepts - describe an object, use language to describe object that not physically in room Formal operational stage - 12-adult Language can be used in abstract way - can have full conversations No need for physical prompts Reason alongside language abilities - unknown word can fully pronounce using skills + Framework to why some skills develop earlier - suggests children need certain level of cognitive development before can engage with complex literacy skills. Framework to why some certain literacy skills may not develop until children reach specific stages of cognitive maturity + Application - stages that go through. Help teachers better plan when and how to introduce new concepts. Recognises literacy learning should be tailored to a child's cognitive abilities - Too rigid - research shown literacy development is more individualised and fluid. May develop specific literacy skills at different times. Literacy acquisition often occurs through scaffolding and contextual support, acquire through interaction with adults and peers even if not reached exact stages Piaget suggested

Answer 40

Learning to read is natural development linked to children's natural development of oral language skills As learn language skills links into reading skills Proposed 4 key components OBSERVATION - opportunity to observe literacy behaviours from others COLLABORATION - interact with others who encourage and help reading process PRACTICE - opportunity to practice alone in order to self evaluate and increase skills independently - often why reading set as homework at early age PERFORMANCE - share new reading skills with those who support them + Diverse application - literacy can develop in variety of contexts, not just in school. Widely generalised, those with limited schooling can still develop literacy. - Lack of clear measurement - broad and descriptive. No clear, measurable set of skills or milestones that can be tracked quantitatively.

Answer 41

Group = two or more people who cooperate with each other and are co-dependent in a sense that they influence each other because of their goals and needs In-group - us - a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity Out-group - them - a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their in-group In-group bias - tendency to favour one's own group Ethnocentrism - one's own group being central to everything - exaggerate and intensify everything peculiar in outgroup which is different to us ie stereotyping; them vs us

Answer 42

Theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self categorisation, social comparisons and construction of shared self-definition terms of intergroup defining properties SOCIAL CATEGORISATION Tendency of people to classify themselves and others into various social grounds based on attributes ie race, gender Can be explicit or implicit Categorise objects to understand and identify them, categorise people to understand social environment SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION Once individuals categorise themselves as member of particular group, adopt identity of group - see themselves in terms of group characteristics, adopt norms, values, behaviours Emotional significance to your identification with a group, self esteem will become bound up with group membership SOCIAL COMPARISON Compare their in-group with out-groups Comparison leads to in-group favouritism Can lead to out-group discrimination - treat members of out-groups negatively based on perceived differences IN-GROUP AND OUT-GROUP Differentiation lead to range of behaviours, from cooperation and solidarity within the in-group to prejudice and discrimination against out-group members POSITIVE DISTINCTIVENESS Individuals maintain a positive social identity, emphasise superiority of their in-group compared to out-groups Can lead to in-group bias and out-group derogation

Answer 43

Social categorisation Social identification Social comparison In-group and out-group Positive distinctiveness + RS - Minimal Group Paradigm Tajfel et al 1971 - experiment on distribution money based on code and group identity. In-group favouritism - pp allocated more rewards to members of own group even though meaningless Out-group derogation - pp allocated fewer resources to out-group Showed in-group bias and discrimination can arise even in absence of competition for resources. + Application: Reduces prejudice - by recognising mechanisms that lead to in-group bias and out-group prejudice, interventions can be designed to foster intergroup understanding and cooperation Organisational behaviour - within organisations, understanding group dynamics can help team formation, conflict resolution, promote corporate identity Political and social movements - formation and mobilisation of social or political groups, factors leading to radicalisation. + RS - Sherif 1954 cave study from RCT How in-group identification leads to intergroup hostility and how a shared goal can alter group relations and reduce conflict - Overemphasis on group identity and underestimating influence of individual differences and situational factors Authoritarian personalities (Adorno et al 1950) or individual pre-dispositions towards prejudice may explain discriminatory behaviour even without social categorisation

Answer 44

Field experiment two groups, 11/12 boys at summer camp in Oklahoma 22 middle class boys, all strangers Randomly allocated to group, picked up in separate buses to camp Study had 3 phases PHASE 1: in-group formation Group separate from each other, unaware of each other Took part in organised intergroup competition needing cooperation, discussion, planning Bonded and developed attachment Established own cultures and group norms, named themselves Ratters & Eagles PHASE 2: Group conflict Series of win or lose competitions and contests arranged to create frustration between them Trophy for winning team, individual prizes for winning. None for losers Conflict created, turned direct and outside competition; physically aggressive, food fights Groups became interdependent, consistent with in-group favouritism, negative image of the out-group and strong in-group cohesiveness PHASE 3: Resolving conflict Groups brought back together to engage in organised intergroup non-competitive activities Became less aggressive. Less in-group favouritism, but high hostility still Big goals that required more then one group was most effective in reducing conflict Sherif 1966 - came up with realist conflict theory of intergroup behaviours to explain: 3 main points: 1. Resources scarcity and competition - when groups perceive that they compete for limited resources, hostility arises 2. Formation of in-group and out-group dynamics - through competition, groups develop a strong sense of 'us' vs 'them'. Distinction can lead to negative stereotyping and increased animosity 3. Superordinate goals - intergroup hostility can be reduced when conflicting groups collaborate on goals that neither group can achieve on its own. Goals supersede their smaller individual goals and encourage cooperation RCT - competition over limited resources can drive intergroup hostility, but collaborative efforts towards shared objectives can help mitigate this conflict. + Real world application - can be applied to world intergroup conflicts. RCT been used to understand conflicts in political or economic settings ie ethnic tension over access to resource or territorial disputes between nations - Ethical issues - pp were deceived unaware part of a study. Not protected from psychological and physical harm. - Individual differences - some may not feel same levels of in-group loyalty or out-group hostility as others Authoritarian personalities (Adorno et al 1950) - certain personality traits can predispose individuals to show greater prejudice and aggression towards out-groups, independent and material competition. - Hard to generalise - only used 11/12 white middle class boys in a controlled environment. Too simplistic and artificial. Real world conflicts involve more complex factors ie political power, history ect that cannot replicate

Answer 45

Dollard et al 1939 All frustration leads to aggression, and all aggression comes from frustration Used to explain prejudice and intergroup aggression Biosocial theory - Individual differences - personality traits, past experiences ect influence wether frustration leads to aggression Some have higher or lower thresholds for frustration. May of developed coping mechanisms for non-aggressive releases

Answer 46

Bandura 1977 Wether a person is aggressive or not in a particular situation depends on: Observational learning (modelling) - learn aggressive behaviour by observing others (models) who AB When see models rewarded or reinforced for AB = more likely to imitate behaviour Modelling involves: Attention; Retention; Reproduction: Motivation Vicarious reinforcement - learning from observing consequences of others actions. See another being rewarded for AB more likely to imitate AB Self efficacy - belief in ability to successfully perform behaviour If believe being aggressive will lead to positive outcomes, self efficacy for aggression increases and more likely to act aggressive when frustrated/provoked Reciprocal Determinism - behaviour shaped by continuous interaction between cognitive factors, behaviour and environment Grow up where AB modelled, believe that aggression is acceptable/effective strategy to get what want

Answer 47

4/5 year olds watched adult play with BoBo doll in 4 conditions PA live PA video PA cartoon Control - not PA behaviour Children who watched adult behave aggressivey in any condition = behaved more aggressive later Live condition most effective But all increased aggresivness + Controlled lab setting - controlled environment - high control to establish cause and effect relationship. + Replicated with similair results Strong effects of modelling across situations and context - Interpretation of aggression - question wether reflects learning Maybe just mimicking behaviour as thought expected to do, knew being watched Following on, lack of long term follow up, unsure if it was learned and continued to address or temporary.

Answer 48

Model type aggressive vs non-aggressive Children exposed to either aggressive or non-aggressive model Those who observed aggressive more likely to imitate Role of reinforcement Agressive model positively reinforced or punished for aggressive actions Who saw being positively reinforced more likely to act aggressive Same sex vs opposite sex models Children exposed to same or opposite sex models being aggressive or non-aggressive More likely to imitate aggressive behaviour of model of same sex Reward or punishment for child Children who rewarded for imitating aggressive behaviour more likely to replicate in future Watching aggression in different contexts Watched aggression in more general setting or structured and emotional intent setting More likely to imitate aggression when appropriate or had fewer immediate consequences in observed context Immediate or delayed imitation Children aggressive when frustrated or similar situation - not have to be immediate after watching model Effects of familiarity With prior exposure to Bobo doll more likely to engage and imitate aggressive behaviours Familiarity can increase likelihood

Answer 49

PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR - behaviour that has positive social consequences and that contributes to physical or psychological well-being of another HELPING BEHAVIOUR - subcategory of prosocial. Act of intentionally benefitting another or a group ALTRUISM - Act meant to benefit another person rather than oneself. Kitty murder: 30 mins of her being killed No one helped Anonymous call to police to report attack Not give name as 'did not want to be involved' 38 admitted to hearing screaming Bystander model - empathy and personal costs not high enough in comparison to personal costs Empathy and altruism - did not feel disturbed enough to act Just world hypothesis - had it coming

Answer 50

BIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTION THEORY Debate wether altruism has evolutionary survival value Stevens et al 2005 - two explanations of cooperative behaviour Mutalism - cooperative behaviour that benefits cooperator and other Kin selection - biased towards blood relatives as helps propagate own genes EMPATHY AND AROUSAL Genetics and environment play a part Biological mechanisms can predispose act, but if and how act, depends on history and immediate circumstances Fail to act prosaically as actively engaging in avoiding empathy Use bystander calculus model to determine Intervene as find unpleasantly arousing and seek relief Alturism is motivated by self interest or egoism SLT, LEARNING TO BE HELPFUL It is learned not innate Classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, observational learning = contribute to being prosocial BYSTANDER BEHAVIOUR Bystander effect - people less likely to help in emergency when with others compared to alone Bystander intervention - individual breaks out of role of bystander and helps another in emergency

Answer 51

Sociometry - Measuring children's social standings; their position or status within peer group Direct observations of behaviour - watch children interact and record behaviour over time Teacher and parent reports - adults who observe children regularly asked to report on child's social interactions and relationships Child reports - children asked to provide information about relationships, who their friends are who like or dislike ect

Answer 52

Sociometric status tells about quality of peer relationship How widely liked or disliked are Sociograms represent a child's relationship with others in peer group Sociometric status type - Coie, Dodge, Coppotelli 1982 Each child asked to nominate 3 classmates they liked most and least Carried out two studies on types of social status and behaviours correlated with Popular - good at imitating interactions; leads others; friendly Controversial - leads others; aggressive; sociable Neglected - few interactions; not noticed Rejected - aggressive, disruptive Average - equal amounts Coie & Dodge 1983 - rejected children have most sociometric stability + large sample size, detailed behavioural profile, consistency across demographics - lack of direct observation of behaviours, reliance on peer reports, biased Peer status is associated with a range of psychological and social outcomes, causation is difficult to establish

Answer 53

FRIENDSHIPS Close, mutual and positive relationship that offers intimacy, companionship, emotional and social support Reciprocal; Intimacy; More intense social activity; More frequent conflict resolution; More effective task performance Initially based on similarities and shared interests, but become more about intimacy and loyalty Important for social and psychological development, buffer negative influences BULLYIING Verbal, physical and indirect aggression Can be understood as a group process. Bullies seek social dominance, often achieve Gender differences; Peer status; Deficient social skills or skilled manipulators? Bystanders take on active role

Answer 54

4 ways affects: Genetic inheritability Parental exposure Indirect negative effects via stress in family environment Direct effects of parenting behaviour & quality of care provided Maternal depression --> less responsive to childs needs -- behaviour & academic difficulties Paternal depression --> conduct issues; emotional issues; less engagement in language based activities --> academic difficulties Lippman et al 2011 - 4 was to identify areas of child wellbeing Physical health and safety Cognitive development and education Psychological & emotional development Social development & behaviour

Answer 55

Hard to define 2 definitions - Fagen 1974 Functional - purpose of behaviour - no external goal Structural - behaviours performed - play signals Include: Kransen and Pepper 1980 Intrinsic motivation Positive affect Non-literacy Flexibility Means and ends Garvey 1991 play is: Pleasurable Has no extrinsic goals Spontaneous and voluntary Involves active engagement on part of player Has certain systematic relations to what is not play

Answer 56

Must have a function - Vandeberg 1978 Exploration-play application sequence To motivate children to learn Helps children to become skilled at manipulating objects To build confidence Linked to language learning Linked to cognitive and social development To learn adult roles To understand emotions

Answer 57

Observed 42 children 2-4.5 in natural setting Categorised play into 6 distinct types UNOCCUPIED PLAY Child not engaged in any activity SOLITARY PLAY Child plays alone, away from others ONLOOKER PLAY Child watching others, not joining in PARLLEL PLAY Plays near others, same materials, but does not interact much ASSOCIATED PLAY Interacts with others in activity, doing similar things COOPERATIVE PLAY Interacts in complementary ways, helps each other

Answer 58

Linked to stage theory of cognitive development Sensori-motor play 0-2 Corresponds with sensori-motor period - approx 0-2 years Concern with bodily sensation and motor development In second year: gain awareness of functions of objects in social world Symbolic/Representational play - approx 2-6 years Child capable of reasoning that one object can symbolise another Children learn and take on social and gender roles Act out experiences - ie role play Games with rules - 7+ Begins in school years - around 5 Most prominent form of play in middle school Explicit rules to govern behaviour Winners and losers Children learn to negotiate, reason and compete - Assumes play is inextricably linked to cognitive development - Children only do certain types of play at certain ages - Limited perspective - Others challenge theory ie Garvey, play is inherently social from outset Smilansky - play as a social and cultural activity. Allows to engage with world in more complex ways That sociodramatic play is essential for normal development Interventions to encourage sociodramatic play can improve developmental outcomes

Answer 59

PHSYICAL PLAY Friendly intent displayed/play signals Boys engage in more then girls 3 functions of physical play + Rhythmical stereotypes - improves control of motor patterns + Exercise play - improves strength and endurance; uses surplus energy + Rough and tumble play - understanding emotions; practice fighting PLAY WITH OBJECTS Chanel for social interaction - Garvey 1991 + Encourages problem solving - encourage critical thinking and planning using trial and error + Fine motor skills - manipulating small pieces helps; hand eye co-ordination, control over fine movements FANTASY PLAY Using imagination to act out roles or scenarios or using objects symbolically Pretend play emerges gradually Need certain abilities ie object permanence Socio-dramatic play - takes on roles or identities in play + Creativity and imagination - allows to create own stories and scenarios. Inventing new worlds, characters, narratives = enhance creativity + Social development - fosters social interaction, normally done with others. Learn to negotiate, take on different perspectives. Practice turn taking and empathy LANGUAGE PLAY Three types of social play with language 1. Spontaneous rhyming and word play Sounds of word more important then grammatical shape Not often in pretend or goal-orientated episodes of play 2. Play with fantasy and nonsense Nonsense and topsy-turvy meanings appeal to children 3. Play with speech acts and discourse conventions Child learns rules of conversation as learns language and as engages in play Can manipulate language conversation in play

Answer 60

Maccoby 1998 Segregation - boys tend to play with boys, girls play with either Differentiation - boys form one solid group, girls differ Asymmetry Types of play Boys - rough and tumble more physical and active / competitive has clear winners and losers / structured having set and defined rules Girls - social and cooperative that involve more collaboration ie playing house / pretend and symbolic play having more imaginative aspect Play styles Boys - engage in larger and more physically active playgroups / more competitive and action orientated Girls - smaller more intimate / building emotional connections