doing psych Flashcards

1
Q

quantitative methods

A

‘traditional tools of science’
focus on development and testing explicit theories

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2
Q

qualitative methods

A

development of verbal theories
open-ended and explanatory (non - numerical)

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3
Q

quantitative theories

A

principle that explain a body of facts
specify the relations (often causal relations) between states
the goal is to understand / explain a system
must predict

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4
Q

what quantitative theories are not

A

description (they must specify structures of interest and pose and explanation for something)
a set of data (need an explanation of what data has been observed)
a diagram (unless it includes a description of logic underlying specified relationships)

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5
Q

david marr (1980) - science of mind - how does it work?

A

computational theory
representation and algorithm
physical implementation

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6
Q

what does computational theory consider? (marr, 1980)

A

what problems is it solving and why
what are the constraints on its solution
what is the nature of the problem that is getting solved/function being computed

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7
Q

what does representation and algorithm consider? (marr, 1980)

A

what information the system represents and how
what does it do with that information
what algorithm is it running on the information to get something useful from it
what is the input to the system, output and what stages does it go through in between

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8
Q

what does physical implementation consider? (marr, 1980)

A

how are these representations and algorithms realised in the hardware of the device itself (neurons of the brain)

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9
Q

what level of marr’s science of mind should we try to study cognition at?

A

implementation can be too abstract
computational links to biological capacity

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10
Q

rescorla wagner model

A

theory of learning via association

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11
Q

what kind of model is the rescorla wagner model

A

mathematical model

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12
Q

what are the 2 types of models in psych

A

mathematical and process models

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13
Q

explain mathematical models

A

models which use an equation to test a statement which associates an input (predictor) with an output (outcome)

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14
Q

explain process models

A

these models attempt to move down marr’s levels of science of mind into the representation & algorithm stage, and sometimes, ideally, the implementation stage
most common in cognitive and behavioural neurosciences
2 broad classes of process model s

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15
Q

symbolic process models

A

represent knowledge as symbolic data structures
there are sets of representations in our brains that can compose and make more complex representations
considered analogous to the computer metaphor of the brain
we have ordered instructions that change these representations
manipulate data structures with variablised rules

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16
Q

connectionist process models

A

represent knowledge as nodes in a network (nodes are analogous to neurons in brain)
knowledge is set in a node or collection of nodes
processing is carried out by passing activation between the nodes over weight of connection

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17
Q

symbolic models : data structures

A

basic or atomic elements that follow composition rules to make more complex structures
like a language and grammar rules
has variables (propoisiton) and operators and rules for putting these together
any 2 proposition can be combined by an operator

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18
Q

symbolic models : processes

A

symbolic operation on data structures - applying rules
if x is larger than y, then x can occlude y
the input doesn’t matter, so the rules will provide an answer
generally : cognition is like a traditional computer programme

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19
Q

how is cognition like a computer

A

mental representation = data structures
procedures = function or methods that operate on data structures
like R!

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20
Q

what is the prototypical symbolic model

A

a production system with 3 components that look like a computer programme
- data base (known facts)
- inference rules (ways of coming to a conclusion about something)
- executive control structure (how knowledge and rules interact) which rules are equipped and when - requires a specific algorithm)

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21
Q

states of production systems

A

current state
- current contents of database (known facts about the systems)
state space
- set of all possible states
goal state
- the state that you want the database to be in
state transition
- moving from one state to another (rules)
search
- the algorithm for traversing the state space and finding the best path for moving from current state to goal state ( deciding which rules to fire in which order)

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22
Q

symbolic models advantages

A

computational power
can define variablised and universally quantified rules (like monopoly)

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23
Q

symbolic models disadvantages

A

sometimes the rules are too rigid to capture human behaviour
fail to capture shades of meaning (cats are different to dogs, but are more like dogs than chairs)
not very automatic processing
do not answer the question of how we learn these rules
all learning occurs by application of the rules (which we have to assume are already built)
no graceful degradation with damage (system cannot reason with anything at all if 1 thing is gone, unlike brains)
no obvious neural implementation

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24
Q

connectionist models

A

composed of networks of interconnected nodes
nodes = simples processors which mimic neurons/populations of neurons
connections = the weight between the nodes
representation = the patterns of activation on the nodes/neurons

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25
what do positive weights in connectionist processing mean
excitatory connections
26
connectionist model advantages
flexible processing (parallel constraints - not all or nothing, captures shades of meaning) flexible representation - - distributed representations capture semantic content - permit automatic generalisation the network can do stuff there are no rules for (though, ability is limited) graceful degradation with damage (take away nodes the network will still function - similar to our brains) transparent neural implementation (easy to see how our brains make connections between information and meaning)
27
connectionist model disadvantages
not symbolic ability to generalise is based on similarities (what you know about something can only generalise to objects like the ones you already know but this is not true of humans) cannot represent or use variablised rules - must learn about different instances children generalise to utterly dissimilar examples sometimes
28
vulnerability definitions
DOH, 2000 = unable to take care of self Smith, 2007 = those with enhanced risk of suicide, self-harm or harming others
29
how does the safeguarding vulnerable groups act 2006 define vulnerability
variety of criteria has been used in the construction of groups defined as vulnerable based on ways in which the groups are = * marginalised * socially excluded * limited opportunities * suffer abuse (psych, sex, finance, physical) * suffer hardship * suffer prejudice * suffer discrimination
30
what kinds of things can lead to social exclusion
unemployment lack of skills low income poor housing high crime bad health family breakdowns
31
how can social exclusion occur
when problems are linked and mutually reinforced with each other and clustered in particular areas/neighbourhoods - this creates a vicious cycle
32
true or false - social exclusion is linked to disadvantages individuals face at birth
true - has been shown to persist from one generation to another
33
examples of vulnerable groups (SVG act 2006)
lone parents people with disabilities older people children ethnic minorities people with mental health struggles homeless people asylum seekers and refugees
34
diplomacy definiton
the art of dealing with people in a sensitive and tactful way
35
diplomacy model
encode and formulate (clarity, empathy, simplicity, build rapport, warm up, open softly) decode and translate (listen attentively, take time, non verbal cues) be polite timing message (relevant to audience, relationship, power dynamic)
36
diplomacy - ways of interacting
text email phone call video call face to face
37
qualitative research method - interviews
where researcher asks questions and allows participant to answer in own way
38
what do we get from interviews
participants using own language - important for analysis of language/meaning richness of how people talk about their views, lives (experiences, relationships, life stories) can discover what they want to talk about - opens new areas of research that were not anticipated can get a sense of life beyond interviews (interviews at home - photographs, possessions, tidiness) empowers the participant by giving them a voice
39
types of research interviews
structured interview semi-structured interview unstructured interview
40
structured interviews
similar to a verbal questionnaire interview schedule with fixed questions short, specific questions for pre-determined categories (which can be coded) as questions with sets of possible answers (yes/no, scales) and sometimes free response which is categorised fixed order of questions no prompting/improv rapport with interviewee is formal
41
semi-structured interview
qualitative interview schedule guides the interview interviewer has topics to cover but attempts to enter world of interviewee and allow of development o unexpected themes order of questions is not so important probing and improvisation involved relatively informal attempt to establish rapport with interviewee
42
unstructured interview
qualitative interview has a schedule but need not be strictly followed order of questions is unimportant interviewer has topics to cover but wants interviewee to talk at length about self and history in own words probing/improv and follow up questions used attempt to establish closer relationship - researcher shows understanding, interest, sympathy often used with ignored/misrepresented voices or sensitive topics - interviewer may need to develop counselling skills
43
how are focus groups used in qualitative research
researcher acts as facilitator/moderator of a group discussion with people who share a common characteristic or experience (4 -12 people) a flexible schedule of questions is used (which includes stimuli)
44
semi-structured interviews - how to make an interview schedule
what questions to ask and how, the order content, scope, style, sequence
45
general guidelines of interview schedule
accoridng to research questions and literature decide on themes/broad areas you want to cover (should be sequenced in logical order and have questions for each area) open with more general/demographic questions prepare prompts for vague/possible misunderstanding questions avoid jargon, leading, threatening (why) and 2-in-1 questions close interview with closing/clean up question
46
how to get a sample for qualitative interviews
small sample should be carefully selected to avoid generalising of groups
47
purposive/theoretical sampling
selecting people on basis of relevance to research questions, theoretical position and analytical framework
48
snowball sampling
through word of mouth/networks to locate people who fit in certain criteria (a way to locate an otherwise invisble/underrepresented group)
49
convenience sampling
locating group of people quickly to maximise convenience and minimise cost - friends, family, colleagues etc not often used in qualitative research because the aim is to study a particular community
50
ethics
must follow professional codes and guidelines - BPS - obtain consent from institutions and participants - reveal research aim (use info sheet for transparency) must establish - withdrawal of participants - confidentiality / anonymity of data - right to publish findings - data protections - safety
51
who do you need approval from
interviewee, parents/guardians, research committee/review board in medical settings
52
what information should you give about the research
project aim, interrview questions, level of intrusion is private spheres, sensitive topics, length of interview, right to not answer questions and withdraw at any time, what happens to the information, level of confidentiality/anonymity, benefits of project
53
how do you obtain approval
assess research information provided in info sheet agreement in participating in the study establish confidentiality, storage, data protections (during and afterwards)
54
what issues may arise in interviews
sensitive topics difficult interviewees
55
things to think about before conducting the interview
test the schedule before - practice delivering and responding to questions remember - interview is dependent on each specific interaction with participant consider how it is being conducted - over the phone, face to face check the recording device if being used
56
face to face interviews
establish rapport, consent, confidentiality, length of interview, safety etc with participant, ensure no interruptions place recorder within reach open questions then lead into interview - 1 at a time, can navigate sequence as interview progresses listen and do not interrupt allow new themes to be explored - try to ask follow up questions which are related to research aims monitor behaviour as effect of the questions at end, and recorder away, double check with interviewee and ensure all data can be used thank them
57
face to face interviews - the aftermath
make notes about clues beyond conversation - appearance, facial expression, postures, comfort methodological notes about recruitment and criefing of interviewee transcribe within 12 hours to maximise recall - produce written representation
58
orthographic transcription
a transcripton of what was said word-for-word using standard orthography (with/without punctuation), indicating speaker change but no indication of prosody / non - linguistic cues - thematic analysis - grounded theory - interpretative phenomenological analysis - narrative analysis
59
Jefferson transcription
in addition to orthographic transcription, transforms including non-linguistic cues (pauses, 'hmm', volume, stresses, prolongation of syllables, overlaps, laughs) and includes speaker identification also includes facial expression, gestures, gaze direction (when audio-video recordings, focus groups etc) - discursive psychology - conversation analysis
60
thematic analysis
interested in what people see as important and what key themes are apparent a method of data analysis for identifying and analysing patterns in qualitative data offers meaningful analysis by focusing on meaning and patterns - provides foundations for other methodology
61
IPA
a methodology interested in what it means to people who have certain experiences
62
grounded theory
a methodology interested in psychological processes and aim is to develop a theory/explanation
63
realist approach - thematic analysis
to get a picture of human psychology questions about finding real attitudes, beliefs, experiences
64
critical realist approach - thematic analysis
to get at participant's personal sense-making questions about meaning that people attribute to experiences, perspectives/practices
65
social constructionist approach - thematic analysis
to get at how a specific event, phenomenon, activity is constructed in specific context, assumes different constructions in different contexts questions about representations/constructions of particular subjects in particular contexts
66
thematic analysis - data collection and transcription
usually purposive or convenience small and big data sets used with interviews and focus group data (also open ended questionnaire, e.g. any data which can be examined for meaning) transcribed through orthographic (often without punctuation) and basic non-linguistic cues (pauses, stresses, reported speech, laughter)
67
thematic analysis - analysis
enables identifying a limited number of themes/patterns of meaning which reflect the data themes identified depend on research questions and approach and data themes generated by researcher or emerge from data depending on type of TA adopted analysis based on coding the data and forming themes from codes - codes and themes can be deductive (reflect pre-existing theories generated by researcher), inductive (codes and themes generated from data and aim at staying close to meaning in data) or both realist TA = deductive coding and themes critical realist TA = inductive coding and themes social constrctions TA = inductive coding and themes
68
ipa - origins and approach
study lived experiences that matter to people origins in phenomenology - interested in answering the question of how we come to understand what our experiences are
69
ipa includes...
focus on participant's psychological world, how they understand situations/events and experiences of situations and events (interpretation) provides interpretation by researcher of inside view - reflexive activity of researcher who aims to provide a critical and conceptual commentary on participant's personal sense making of experiences and understanding
70
IPA - data collection and transcription
purposive sampling usually homogeneous groups - data about people who have experiences in a particular areas small sample size (1-15) qualitative interviews and focus group discussion IPA of documentation that provides personal descriptions of events, situations and experiences as diaries, letters etc orthographic transcription
71
IPA - analysis
looks at data and identifies themes and concepts and produce clusters of related themes based on case by case analysis (ideographic inquiry)
72
grounded theory
qualitative methodology aim to develop theory grounded in data (inductive development of theory that starts with data/empirical world) develop middle range theory, to understand how individuals and interpersonal behaviours and processes research questions about psychological topics (motivation, emotions, experiences, identity, attraction, bullying, prejudice, interpersonal cooperation, conflict) and how they develop, maintain, or change in participants who have experience of the topic of interest social constructionist approach start with general interest on topic end up working on specific research question through active research process research involved in generating data
73
grounded theory - data collection
data of participants' views and experiences of people who have experience in topic of interest theoretical sampling or purposive sampling sample size depends on whether further data should be collected for developing the theory rich data from interviews - intensive interviewing (also field work observations, documents, conversations)
74
grounded theory - intensive interviewing (charmaz, 2014)
selection of research participation who have first-hand experiences that fits the research topic in depth exploration of participants experience and situations emphasis on understanding the research participant's perspective, meanings, experience to obtain detailed responses and relies on open ended questions follows up on unanticipated areas of inquiry, implicit views, hint, accounts of action
75
grounded theory - trasncription
orthographic transcription (with or without punctuation) of what is said word for word can be supplemented by basic non-linguistic cues (pauses, stresses, hums, laughs, reported speech)
76
grounded theory - analysis
start with initial data from first interview prepare memo-writing about emerging categories use initial analysis to form new interview questions = theoretical sampling (used to test and develop categories and test relationships identified in first analysis) elaborate further meaning of categories, compare category development with data and codes, discover variation and gaps in categories (develop a theory inductively and try to get categories add up to something that explains deeper meaning in the data in more abstract/general way) stop sampling and analysis when categories are saturated
77
Charmaz - coding grounded theory
involves line by line coding with active labels to describe what is happening in each line focused/selective coding - code for what you want (focus on relevant and related meanings) organise related codes into categories and label
78
grounded theory - pitfalls to avoid
ignoring previous literature producing an under-analysis (obvious conclusions of categories that do not add up to something that explains deeper meaning in data in a more abstract of general way- could be due to premature stopping of data collection) analysing data deductively or applying steps mechanically (without using inductive reasoning) not following the methodological steps adequately