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IMMS > DNA > Flashcards

DNA Flashcards

1
Q

What is the flowchart from atoms to cells?

A

Atoms → Molecules → Macromolecules → Organelles → Cells

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2
Q

Is there a common structure between macromolecules?

A

No, they have heterogeneous function

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3
Q

What is the universal solvent and at what temperature is its maximum density?

A

Water and 4 degrees Celsius

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4
Q

Why are water molecules polar?

A

Unevenly distributed electron density and uneven shape

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5
Q

Why is electron density unevenly distributed in water?

A

The oxygen end of the molecule has a slightly positive charge as it is more electronegative than hydrogen, hydrogen end has a slightly positive charge

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6
Q

Why does water being a polar molecule help its function of universal solvent?

A

It is excellent at dissolving ionic and polar compounds and doesn’t interact with non-polar substances

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7
Q

How many monosaccharides in an oligosaccharide?

A

Between 3 and 10

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8
Q

How are glycosidic bonds formed?

A

OH or NH group on one molecule can react with the NH or OH group on a neighbouring monosaccharide to form glycosides (joined by covalent glycosidic bond)

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9
Q

What are the different glycosidic bonds?

A

O glycosidic bonds form polysaccharides, N glycosidic bonds are found in nucleotides and DNA

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10
Q

What are fatty acids?

A

Mostly straight chains of 16-20 carbons with a methyl and carboxyl group at the end

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11
Q

What happens to the melting point as the degree of unsaturation increases?

A

The melting point decreases as more double bonds are present in the chain as decreased intermolecular forces

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12
Q

What are trans-unsaturated fatty acids?

A

Hydrogen atoms are on the opposite side therefore it is a straight chain

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13
Q

What are cis-unsaturated fatty acids?

A

Hydrogen atoms on the same side therefore bent configurations

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14
Q

What are phosphoacylglycerols?

A

Phosphoacylglycerols are glycerol-based lipids with two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to the third carbon of the glycerol backbone

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15
Q

What are sphingolipids are where are they found?

A

Sphingolipids are a class of lipids that contain a sphingosine backbone. They play a key role in cell structure and signalling. Sphingolipids are found in cell membranes, especially in the nervous system, and abundant in the myelin sheath surrounding nerve cells.

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16
Q

Where are all steroids in animals derived from?

A

Cholesterol and steroids are biosynthesised by all animal cells

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17
Q

What is cholesterol?

A

An essential structure component of an animal cell membrane

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18
Q

What is gonane?

A

Steroid nucleus/ core structure, composed of 17 carbons bonded in 4 fused rings

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19
Q

How do steroids vary?

A

Functional group attached to 4 ring core and oxidation state

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20
Q

What are eicosanoids?

A

Molecules made from fatty acids, control important processes in the body, such as inflammation, pain, blood clotting, and immune responses

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21
Q

How many different amino acids?

A

20

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22
Q

What is the general structure of amino acids?

A

Carbon with an amino group, carboxyl chain and a side group (which determines polarity) - charge determined by all 3 components which changes with pH of environment

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23
Q

What do non-polar amino acids lack?

A

Hydrogen acceptors or donor atoms

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24
Q

What do polar amino acids contain?

A

Groups with nitrogen, oxygen or sulphur atoms that allow them to hydrogen bond with water molecules, allowing them to be more soluble in water and hydrophilic

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25
Q

What are aromatic amino acids?

A

Amino acids with an aromatic ring (benzene)

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26
Q

What are peptide bonds?

A

Covalent bonds linking adjacent amino acids from nitrogen of 1 amino acid to carboxyl of the other

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27
Q

What are nucleotides and what is the general structure?

A

Organic molecules and building blocks of DNA and RNA, nitrogenous base + pentose sugar + phosphate group

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28
Q

Which nucleotides are purines?

A

Adenine and guanine

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29
Q

Which nucleotides are pyrimidines?

A

Uracil, cytosine and thymine

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30
Q

Which pentose sugar in DNA and RNA?

A

Deoxyribose sugar in DNA, ribose sugar in RNA

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31
Q

How many hydrogen bonds form in complementary base pairing?

A

Adenine to thymine/uracil - 2 hydrogen bonds
Cytosine to guanine - 3 hydrogen bonds

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32
Q

Describe eukaryotes

A

DNA in the nucleus, bound to proteins (chromatin complex) appearance varies due to functional moment (cell cycle), condenses at mitosis to chromosomes (2 identical chromatids joined at a centromere) and some DNA in mitochondria

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33
Q

Describe prokaryotes

A

No nuclear membrane, DNA arranged in a single chromosome

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34
Q

What is DNA?

A

Stores genetic material in order of nucleotides used to make protein regulators and templates for transcription and protein synthesis

35
Q

What is the genome?

A

Complete set of information for all the proteins the organism will ever make

36
Q

Explain the wrapping and coiling of DNA

A

DNA wraps around the nucleosome (consisting of 8 histone proteins), further coiling into solenoids, defining packing of DNA

37
Q

How many chromosomes in humans?

A

46 chromosomes, 22 numbered pairs of autosomes and either XY (male) or XX (female)

38
Q

How does DNA replication happen?

A

DNA unwinds at the replication fork, creating two new complementary strands. Each new DNA molecule has one old and one new strand (semi-conservative)

39
Q

Why is DNA replication fast despite its size?

A

It only takes 8-12 hours because replication starts at multiple points along the DNA simultaneously

40
Q

What enzymes are needed for DNA replication?

A

DNA polymerases (alpha, delta), helicase, ligase, nuclease, primase, and topoisomerase

41
Q

What do topoisomerase and helicase do in DNA replication?

A

Topoisomerase unwinds the helix; helicase opens the DNA strands

42
Q

What do single-stranded binding proteins do?

A

They keep the DNA strands apart so they don’t stick back together

43
Q

In which direction does DNA polymerase alpha work?

A

It reads DNA 3’ to 5’ and prints 5’ to 3’, anti-parallel to the original strand

44
Q

How is the lagging strand replicated?

A

In short sections called Okazaki fragments, because DNA polymerase can only work in the 3’ to 5’ direction

45
Q

What enzyme joins Okazaki fragments?

A

Ligase joins the fragments on the lagging strand

46
Q

How does DNA polymerase fix mistakes?

A

DNA polymerase can detect and correct wrong base insertions

47
Q

What does mitosis produce?

A

Two genetically identical daughter cells for growth and repair

48
Q

Which tissues are mitotically active?

A

Bone marrow and the epithelial lining of the gut

49
Q

What happens in G1, S, and G2 phases of the cell cycle?

A

G1: Cell grows; S: DNA and centrosome replicate; G2: More growth. Together, they form interphase

50
Q

What happens during prophase?

A

Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the mitotic spindle forms as centromeres move to opposite poles

51
Q

What occurs in prometaphase?

A

The nuclear membrane breaks down, and chromatids attach to microtubules

52
Q

What happens in metaphase?

A

Chromatids line up at the cell’s equator

53
Q

What occurs in anaphase?

A

Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles

54
Q

What happens in telophase?

A

Nuclear membranes reform, chromosomes relax into chromatin, and the cell starts dividing (cytokinesis)

55
Q

Why is mitosis important in cancer diagnosis?

A

It helps to categorize tumors as benign or malignant and grade malignant tumours

56
Q

What is meiosis?

A

Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces four genetically diverse haploid cells (gametes) from one diploid cell.

57
Q

How many stages are in meiosis?

A

Meiosis consists of two main stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II, each with several phases

58
Q

What is the purpose of meiosis?

A

Meiosis generates genetic diversity through recombination and reduces the chromosome number for sexual reproduction

59
Q

What happens during Prophase I?

A

Chromosomes condense, homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis), and crossing over occurs, exchanging genetic material

60
Q

What are tetrads?

A

Tetrads are formed when homologous chromosomes align together during Prophase I, consisting of four chromatids

61
Q

What occurs during Metaphase I?

A

Tetrads line up along the equatorial plane of the cell, with spindle fibers attached to centromeres

62
Q

What happens during Anaphase I?

A

Homologous chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell, while sister chromatids remain attached

63
Q

What occurs in Telophase I?

A

The nuclear membranes may reform, and the cell undergoes cytokinesis, resulting in two haploid cells

64
Q

What happens during Interkinesis?

A

Interkinesis is a short resting phase between meiosis I and II, where no DNA replication occurs

65
Q

What occurs during Prophase II?

A

Chromosomes condense again, and the nuclear envelope breaks down if it reformed during Telophase I. Spindle fibers form

66
Q

What happens in Metaphase II?

A

Chromosomes line up at the cell’s equator again, with spindle fibers attached to the centromeres of sister chromatids

67
Q

What occurs during Anaphase II?

A

Sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite poles of the cell

68
Q

What happens in Telophase II?

A

Nuclear membranes reform around each set of chromosomes, and cytokinesis occurs, resulting in four haploid daughter cells

69
Q

What is the outcome of meiosis?

A

The result is four genetically diverse haploid gametes, ready for fertilization

70
Q

What is genetic recombination?

A

Genetic recombination occurs during crossing over in Prophase I, increasing genetic diversity in gametes

71
Q

What is non-disjunction?

A

Non-disjunction is the failure of chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during meiosis, leading to gametes with abnormal chromosome numbers

72
Q

How does age affect the risk of Down syndrome?

A

The risk of Down syndrome increases with maternal age due to a higher likelihood of non-disjunction during meiosis

73
Q

What are the three types of RNA?

A

mRNA (messenger), rRNA (ribosomal), tRNA (transfer)

74
Q

What is the role of mRNA in transcription?

A

mRNA carries the DNA code to ribosomes for protein synthesis

75
Q

What modifications happen to pre-mRNA?

A

A 5’ CAP and 3’ Poly-A tail are added to help it leave the nucleus and bind to ribosomes

76
Q

What is the function of tRNA?

A

tRNA carries specific amino acids to the ribosome to build proteins, matching anticodons to codons

77
Q

What are introns and exons?

A

Introns are non-coding regions removed during splicing. Exons are the coding regions that stay in mRNA

78
Q

What are stop codons?

A

UAA, UAG, and UGA are stop codons that signal the end of translation

79
Q

What holds a protein’s shape together?

A

Van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, and disulfide bridges

80
Q

What determines a protein’s primary structure?

A

The sequence of amino acids, which dictates how the protein will fold.

81
Q

What is a protein’s secondary structure?

A

The formation of alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets due to hydrogen bonding.

82
Q

What is tertiary structure in proteins?

A

The overall 3D shape of a single polypeptide chain.

83
Q

What is quaternary protein structure?

A

The 3D arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits.

IMMS (2 decks)

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