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Evolution and Genetics > DNA > Flashcards

DNA Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Nucleus

A

Membrane bound structure that contains the cell’s genes and controls the cell’s growth and reproduction.

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2
Q

Genome

A

Haploid set of chromosomes in a gamete, consists of all genetic instruction of cell, all the chromosomes together.

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3
Q

Somatic cells

A

Any cell of a living organism other than the reproductive cells

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4
Q

Germ cells

A

Cell containing half the number of chromosomes (only 23), able to unite with one form of the opposite sex to form a new individual (gamete)

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5
Q

Gametes

A

Reproductive cells (haploid) that only carry one copy of each chromosome

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6
Q

Chromosomes

A

Thread like structure of nucleic acids and proteins carrying the genetic information (DNA) in the form of genes.

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7
Q

Autosomes

A

Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome.

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8
Q

Eukaryotic cell

A

Cells with a nucleus enclosed with membranes.

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9
Q

Prokaryotic cell

A

Cells that have no nucleus, DNA can be everywhere (bacteria)

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10
Q

Mitosis

A

Cell division that results in 2 daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus (occurs in tissue growth).

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11
Q

Meiosis

A

Cell division that results in 4 daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell (occurs in the production of gametes)

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12
Q

Nucleotides/base pairs/nucleobases

A

Building blocks of nucleic acids, composed of 3 subunit molecules (nitrogenous base, 5-carbon-sugar and 1 or more phosphate groups)

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13
Q

Forward strand

A

5’ to 3’ strand of the double helix

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14
Q

Reverse complement strand

A

3’ to 5’ strand of the double helix

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15
Q

Sugar-phosphate backbones

A

Makes up the strands of the DNA

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16
Q

Double/a-helix

A

Structure of the DNA (formed by sugar-phosphates and base pairs)

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17
Q

Helicase

A

Enzymes that “unpackage” an organisms genes (open up the DNA so it can duplicate)

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18
Q

DNA polymerases

A

Enzymes that synthesize DNA molecules, essential for DNA replication.

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19
Q

Replication fork

A

Place where the helicase split up the 2 strands of DNA

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20
Q

Introns

A

Non-coding part of the DNA that stay in the nucleus and are removed by spliceosomes.

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21
Q

Exons

A

Coding part of the DNA that exit the cell nucleus and gets translated into RNA and then encodes the amino acids at the ribosomes.

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22
Q

Transcription

A

First step of gene expression in which a particular segment (the exon) of DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase

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23
Q

Splicing

A

Editing of the precursor of mRNA (pre-mRNA/RNA) into mRNA with the removing of introns and the ligation (joining) of exons.

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24
Q

Translation

A

Process in which ribosomes synthesize proteins with the help of tRNA that adds up the amino acids coded for by the mRNA.

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25
Q

Ribosomes

A

Molecular machine that serves protein synthesis, link amino acids together in the order specified by the mRNA.

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26
Q

RNA

A

Ribonucleic acid, formed through transcription (does not have the nucleic acid thymine but instead uracil).

27
Q

mRNA

A

Messenger RNA, which only contains the exons and leaves the cell nucleus in order to travel to the ribosomes.

28
Q

tRNA

A

Transfer RNA that transports the amino acds and delivers them to the ribosomes when needed.

29
Q

Amino acids

A

Organic compounds containing amine and carboxyl functioning groups, building blocks of proteins.

30
Q

Protein

A

Made up of amino acid (chains)

31
Q

Triplet/Codon

A

Set of 3 adjacent nucleotides that as a group (triplet) code for one specific amino acid.

32
Q

Redundancy

A

Situation in which a biochemical function (amino acid) is encoded by 2 or more different codons.

33
Q

Central dogma in genetics

A

Flow of genetic information within a biological system, which goes only in one direction and not the other: DNA makes RNA and RNA is transcripted into mRNA wich makes (via translation) proteins.

34
Q

Gene mutation

A

Permanent alteration in the DNA sequence such that it differs from what is found in most people, can differ in size (single base pair to large part of a chromosome/multiple genes).

35
Q

Frameshift

A

Mutation caused by the addition or deletion of one more base pair in the DNA of a gene resulting in a wrong translation of the genetic code and mutated proteins.

36
Q

Types of mutations

A

Point mutation, slippage, transposition, chromosomal mutations, mutagens, frameshift mutation.

37
Q

Point mutation

A

Mutation affecting only 1 or very few nucleotides in a gene sequence.

38
Q

Slippage

A

Mutation leading to trinucleotide or dinucleotide expansion or contraction during DNA replication. A slippage event normally occurs when a sequence of repetitive nucleotides is found at the site of replication.

39
Q

Transposition

A

Mutation in which a chromosomal segment is transferred to a new position on the same or another chromosome.

40
Q

silent mutation

A

Change in the DNA sequence that codes for amino acids in a protein sequence but does not change the encoded amino acid. Due to the redudancy of the genetic code.

41
Q

Missense mutation

A

Mutation that alters the amino acid sequence of a protein.

42
Q

Epigenetics

A

The study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself.

43
Q

Methylation

A

Process by which methyl groups are added to the DNA molecule. Methylation can change the activity of a DNA segment without changing the sequence. When located in a gene promoter, DNA methylation typically acts to repress gene transcription.

44
Q

Histone modification

A

Covalent post-translational modification (PTM) to histone proteins which includes methylation and can impact gene expression by altering chromatin structure or recruiting histone modifiers.

45
Q

Genetic linkage

A

Tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together during the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction.

46
Q

Recombination

A

Production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent. In eukaryotes, genetic recombination during meiosis can lead to a novel set of genetic information that can be passed on from the parents to the offspring.

47
Q

Gaussian curve of human nature

A

Bell curve with “normal” and most common behavior around the mean/peak and extreme behaviors to the left and right ends.

48
Q

Purine

A

Adenine, Guanine

49
Q

Pyrimidine

A

Cytosine, Thymine

50
Q

Rest of DNA

A

1) Pseudogenes
2) Transposable Elements
3) Simple Sequences Repeats

51
Q

Transposition

A

Jumping Gene
-> non-coding region: less, no damage
-> coding region: damage

52
Q

Deletion

A

Lengths of DNA are deleted

53
Q

Inversion

A

Lengths of DNA are inverted or turned around

54
Q

Reciprocal Translocation

A

when two chromosomes exchange equal lengths of DNA

55
Q

Non-reciprocal Translocation

A

When one chromosome gains more than the other

56
Q

Nondisjunction

A

common copying error for chromosomes is an uneven split of the pairs of chromosomes during meiosis (nondisjunction of one of the smallest chromosomes (21) causes Down Syndrome)

57
Q

MAOA Gene

A

Reduction of Amygdala Volume, Cingulate + Ventral PFC (emotions and inhibition of impulsive and aggressive behavior)

58
Q

What do genes in the brain?

A

Reduction in PFC, cingulate, temporal cortex, angular gyrus, amygdala, hippocampus

59
Q

neural moral theory of antisocial behavior

A

antisocial individuals have a breakdown in the neural circuit normally activated during moral decision making.

60
Q

Importance of a loving mother

A

pups raised by less-nurturing moms exhibit greater methylation and reduced expression fro a gene connected to reproductive behavior.

61
Q

Drugs

A

many drugs like cocaine decrease methylation of histones and acetylation in the brain’s reward circuitry, which both normally promote gene activity.

62
Q

Role for epigenetics in Cognition

A

Training of mice with electric shocks resulted in DNA methylation in the hippocampus - the area responsible for memory. This DNA methylation thus affects the formation and maintenance of memories. Additionally, adult mice, compared with juveniles, exhibit reduced histone acetylation and diminished activation of genes in the hippocapus that were related to learning and memory. As in the Alzheimer’s mice, drugs that boosted histone acetylation improved the older mice’s performance on tests of rodent cognition.

63
Q

The Dutch Hunger Winter

A

-> the long-lasting diet, that lacked in folate and other methyl donors, reduced the methylation a major gene for foetal growth and development (IGF2)
-> 60 years after this, scientists found these effects only in adults, whose mothers starved in the first three months of pregnancy, methylation was normal for children whose mothers only started starving after the 3rd month

Evolution and Genetics (5 decks)

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