Diversity key cites Flashcards
King and Cortina, 2010
Thought paper on orgs’ duty to adopt supportive LGBT policies. Diversity as CSR/ethics.
3 arguments: 1) LGBT workers continue to face discrimin, and aren’t protected by law. 2) Discrimin leads to negative outcomes for mental and physical health. 3) Orgs share responsibility for social good of communities they serve.
Policies account for over 60% of variance in discrimin.
Recommends: 1) Include LGBT employees as protected from discrimin in employment practices. This alone helps with satisf and commitment. 2) Look beyond that toward equal treatment in all areas, i.e., surveys, benefits, ERGs 3) be org allies by taking on advocacy - lobbying and donations.
Thomas et al., 2004
Diversity ideologies
Meritocracy: Myth. Everyone has an equal opp if they work hard enough. Hides systemic racism/discrim that created generational barriers.
Melting Pot: Myth. Would mean everyone who immigrated (or were slaves) gave up and contributed equally to a new culture. Reality is: assimilation.
Colorblindness: Stipulates not noticing color bc makes one vulnerable to racism and discrim. Not possible.
Multi-culturalism: Seeks to ID, articulate, use differences.
Research suggests colorblindness approaches lead to increased, MC lower discrim, stereotyping, better support for policy (Leslie et al., 2019). But MC may be met with backlash.
Jayne and Dipboye, 2004
This article outlines how to manage diversity effectively.
Orgs invest billions in D&I - “good for biz”
Biz case: top talent requires diverse pool; increase market share; unleashes creativity; ethics (Cox 1991)
Research results are mixed: Div has neg effects on attitudes and team performance.
Steps for orgs to manage div effectively:
1. Managers must be committed and accountable (i.e., set goals)
2. Conduct thorough needs assessment bc must be tailored to situation (culture, people, biz issues). Ensures issues will be FRAMED appropriately (Thomas and Ely, 2001) and correct interventions chosen.
3. Develop a strategy that is also tied to biz results in realistic ways. Employees must understand the biz case for buy-in. Div best framed as an opp for everyone to learn, accomplish work, and requiringsupportive org culture and leadership. Emphasize fairness of program to reduce backlash (procedural buffers distrib justice)
4. Focus on team building
5. Metrics: i.e., compare demographics to available labor market; flow stats (selection rates for groups), will help ID processes that need intervention
Have long range perspective, takes time.
Ely and Thomas, 1996; 2001
This refers to diversity frames (paradigms) that orgs employ and their effectiveness.
Discrimination-and-fairness focuses on colorblindness and assimilation.
Access-and-legitimacy celebrates diversity but emphasizes business benefit which pigeon holes and limits access to upward mobility.
Learning-and-effectiveness (multiculturalism) taps into true benefits of div. Allows employees to integrate cultural values and norms. Higher competitive advantage.
Managers using any were motivated to diversify staffs. But only I-L made employees feel supported and valued, which leads to long-term success.
Kalev et al., 2006
This is an empirical article on diversity policies.
-Orgs typically use one of 3 broad approaches to increasing managerial diversity (composition):
ones that establish responsibility (i.e., AA plans, diversity managers, committees), ones that target stereotyping thru education and feedback (i.e., training), and those that address social isolation of their members (i.e., mentoring & networking).
-The most effective practices in increasing diversity are those that establish org responsibility.
-The least effective: programs were those that aimed to tame managerial bias thru training and evaluations (stereotype approach).
-Establishing responsibility also improves effects from all other strategies.
For black women: need multiple programs to have sig effects
For black men, none of them showed signif effect
For white women, the more the better
Jackson & Joshi, 2011
This is a handbook on work team diversity.
Theories: ASA, Demography, social ID, info processing (KSAs), Social capital ext vs int networks, faultlines (multiple shared attrib).
Work team diversity impacts outcomes such as conflict, communication, cohesion, turnover, commitment, creativity, team performance.
-People tend to dislike dissimilar others (ASA, social ID, org demog)
-Generally creativity is enhanced, but faultlines are a problem, esp when they disrupt info sharing and socializing
-Performance: very mixed outcomes, perhaps due to not measuring deep diversity and intersections of deep and surface diversity
Schneider, 1987
Attraction-Selection-Attrition model
-People are attracted to organizations perceived to possess values similar to their own. Companies also select employees they perceive as sharing their core values.
-When misfits occur, one (or both parties) recognize the lack of fit and act to correct it through quitting or leaving unvoluntarily
-The result of this process is a homogenous organization (similar values and
personality types).
-Initially developed to describe organizational patterns concerning deep-level
diversity (values/beliefs), but could prove relevant to demographic
diversity, e.g., why many homogeneous organizations report such difficulty attracting and retaining employees belonging to underrepresented demographic groups
Hebl and Avery, 2012
This is a handbook chapter on diversity in orgnaizations.
- Diversity can be conceptualized as surface or deep level.
- Theoretical perspectives of diversity work: SIT (Tajfel & Turner, 1985), stigma theory (Goffman, 1963), SCM (Cuddy et al., 2008), social role theory (Eagly, 1987).
- Diversity will hurt/hinder performance depending on how it influences interpersonal dynamics within the unit/team (e.g., deeper and surface together may create faultlines)
- Diversity climate: shared perceptions regarding the organizational valuation of diversity and inclusion. Climate precedes composition thru attraction-selection and incumbent attitudes. Climates more controllable and necessary for retention.
- Efforts to diversify composition won’t work if climate isn’t already in place to retain. Focus on climate first. Gaining support requires ensuring majority members feel included. Frame diversity as instrumental vs compensatory, and also multicultural.
Sawyer et al., 2013
This is a theory/practice piece that outlines that importance of intersectionality research in orgs and how to do it.
- Intersectionality: social categories interact to form qualitatively different meanings or experiences (i.e., black woman is different from black + woman).
- Most psych theories do not account for these experiences (either focus on white men or are based on white men vs white women, etc). They control for things like gender, too.
- It’s difficult to do intersectional research bc it’s hard to predict how intersecting IDs matter across diff contexts.
Festinger, 1954
Social comparison theory
- Individuals determine their worth based on how they compare to others.
- Downward comparisons stand to make people feel better about themselves.
- Upward comparisons stand to make people feel worse or motivated to improve.
Jones and King, 2014
This is a review and multilevel model of ID mgmt at work.
- ID management refers to decision making process around when, how, where, and to whom to disclose their identities.
- Disclosure decisions are impacted by perceived support and anticipated acceptance.
- Signaling occurs in ambiguous circumstances; revealing/concealing in certain circumstances.
- Neg outcomes of ID mgmt: preoccupation with impression management can deplete cognitive resources, neg impact task perform.
- But pos outcomes: Increased authenticity, interpersonal relationships, psychological well-being
- Reactionsfrom others influence performance, attitudes, helping, discrimin percept, well-being. This influences future decisions to disclose.
Clair et al., 2005
This is a review and model of invisible identity mgmt.
- Passing (concealing) vs revealing (signaling, normalizing, differentiating) strategies
- Decision is based on individual differences (i.e., risk taking, motives), and is moderated by context (div climate, norms, relationships). A feedback loop impacts future strategies and context.
Griffith and Hebl, 2002
This is an empirical study on antecedents and outcomes of coming out at work for LG employees.
Antecedents: ID centrality, outness in non-work, org policies, perceived gay-supportiveness
Outcomes: Higher job satisfaction, lower job anxiety
(Working for gay-supportive org also led to same outcomes)
Mediator: Reactions of coworkers
Takeaway: Disclosure is good, dependingon coworker reactions
Ragins, 2008
This is a theory/ framework on identity mgmt across life domains.
Disclosure disconnects are differing degrees of disclosure in work and nonwork domains. Leads to psychological stress and discomfort as person attempts to manage their ID across settings.
Unique issues for invisible stigmas: the need to disclose, lack of control over disclosure, invisibility itself, and how disclosure impacts relationships.
Three outcomes identity denial (closeted in both domains), identity disconnects (varying degrees across domains), identity integration (full disclosure in all domains).
ID integration is likely most beneficial - psych congruence, must be positive div climates, likely more positive rx as a result
ID centrality: more likely to disclose if higher
Swann, 1983; 1987
Self Verification Theory
- People are motivated to have others see them as they see themselves. People seek a stable view of their ID and have a basic need to affirm their ID.
- It’s an explanation for why people disclose concealable stigmatized identities to others.
Goffman, 1963
Stigma theory
- Stigma: individual attributes that are seen as personal flaws within a social context. They discredit individuals.
- Three categories of stigmas: aberrations of the body (e.g., physical disability, birthmarks), character flaws (e.g., drug addiction, mental illness), and tribal stigmas (e.g., race, nationalities, religion)
Jones, 1984
6 stigma dimensions (along which stigmas differ)
1) concealability - extent to which others can see the stigma
2) course - how the stigma changes over time
3) disruptiveness - degree to which it impedes social interactions
4) peril/threat - danger others perceive (whether accurate or not) the stigma will cause them
5) origin/cause - whether people thing it was present at birth, accidental or deliberate, their fault
6) aesthetics - visual quality of the stigma
Dovidio et al (2000) added a 7th: Collectivity - the degree to which it is shared with a group (i.e., LGBT)
King et al., 2012
This is an empirical study on challenging work assignments and womens’ career progress.
Men were more likely to receive CWEs than women. CWEs are positively related to career progression.
This can be explained by ambivalent sexism theory (Glicke and Fiske, 1996): male managers hold stereotyped beliefs that women should be protected, so they withholding CWEs. Helps explain why women are under-repped at highest levels.
Madera et al., 2009
This is an empirical study on gendered language in letters of recommendation.
-Women more likely than men to be described with more communal (rather than agentic) terms in letters of recommendation, which decreases their perceived hireability.
Fine et al., 2020
This is a review on benefits of gender diversity. (women/men)
Comes with both justice-based & organizational benefits.
The sexes are neither dinstinctly different, nor completely similar.
Justice based gains: may cause less sex discrimination and reduce androcentrism in product/services.
Instrumental org benefits: team and firm performance, innovation, occup well-being, governance (especially latter 2).
Orgs Should: strive to reduce horizontal and vertical sex segregation in order to reduce sex discrimin and harassment. Targets and quotas have been effective. Don’t just rest case on the performance/innovation argument. Framing key: Saying you want a woman’s perspective only reinforces gender essentialism. Saying it’s to increase diversity works
Ruggs et al., 2014
This is an empirical study on the interaction of age and gender in selection contexts.
- Older male applicants were evaluated more negatively than older female and younger male applicants for entry level jobs (not having stable employment).
- Gender norm violations explain the effect (they should be more settled in their career bc they shouldn’t have had other family duties etc). - Social role theory / role congruity theory inverse
Heilman, 2001; 2012
Theory and a later review of gender stereoypes and their outcomes for women’s careers.
-Descriptive gender stereotypes: Beliefs about what men and women ARE like.
These create a “lack of fit” b/w “female” attributes and ones thought necessary for success in
traditionally male positions. (Heilman, 2001). Cognitive biases maintain these (selective
attention/info processing).
-Prescriptive gender stereotypes – Beliefs about what men and women SHOULD BE like.
They establish normative expectations for men’s and women’s behavior, resulting in devaluation
and degradation of women who directly or indirectly violate gender norms (Heilman, 2001).
-Both create expectations and can compromise women’s career progress (lower hiring rates, starting salary, raises, promotion opps, particularly in gender-typed positions and roles (i.e., leadership).
Eagly and Karau, 2002
Role Congruity Theory of prejudice toward female leaders
-This is an extension of social role theory.
-Proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice:
(a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential leaders and
(b) evaluating behavior of leaders less favorably when it is enacted by a woman than a man.
Consequences:
1) attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders.
2) it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles.
Glicke and Fiske, 1996
Ambivalent sexism theory.
- Holds that attitudes toward women are not exclusively negative.
- Hostile sexism: negative expressions of incompetence reflected by other theories (lack of fit, role congruity)
- Benevolent sexism: positive expressions of paternalism (protectiveness). This ambivalence was created through men’s historical domination over women and also dependency on women for survival.
Sabat et al., 2016
Review paper on experiences of working mothers. 3 theories to explain stereotypes and stigma of working mothers:
Stigma theory: controllable, visible, follows a course (Jones, 1984). Less capable as pregnancy goes on
SCM: As working women transition to motherhood, trade perceived competence for warmth
Social role theory: Women viewed as being naturally good at domestic duties, men at financial. Men thus encouraged to enter high-status positions (esp those with kids), but women discouraged (esp those with kids).
Roberson and Kulik, 2007
Stereotype threat: when fear of being judged according to a negative stereotype hampers performance (due to anxiety and distraction). Can affect majority groups too.
Outcomes of repeated ST: poor physiological health, lower job satisf, and disengagement from relevant performance domain.
Conditions when ST is most likely:
1. The employee is invested in doing well, on:
2. A difficult, stereotype relevant task (leads to ask themselves why difficult; cues stereotype awareness), where:
3. The context reinforces the stereotype
Managers should: Acknowledge stereotypes, state they’re capable; make role models salient
Tajfel & Turner, 1985
Social identity theory
- Individuals classify themselves and those they encounter on the basis of readily identifiable characteristics such as race, ethnicity, sex or age.
- The purpose of these classifications is to determine whether others belong to one’s in-group (similar) or out-group (dissimilar).
- Because (a) individuals are motivated to feel positively about themselves and (b) the in-group is seen as an extension of the self, there is an inherent inclination to see the in-group in a favorable light.
- individuals support or oppose diversity policies (i.e., affirmative action) if they see it as (in)consistent w salient group identities
- Creates conundrums for those with invisible marginalized identities
Cuddy et al., 2008
Stereotype Content Model/Theory (SCM)
People respond to others on 2 basic dimensions: warmth (perceptions of competition) and competence (are they capable of carrying out intentions). Groups with incompatible goals represent threats to resources & are stereotyped as low warmth (benevolence). Warmth primary day to day, but competence moreso in workplace. BIAS map predicts behaviors from these judgements.
-Low in both: homeless, the poor – incites contempt - active/passive harm
-High comp/low warmth: Asians, men – incites envy - active harm/passive help
-Low competence/High warmth: disabled, elderly – incites pity / passive harm (failure to hire)/active helping (paternalism)
-High on both: middle class, Whites – incites admiration - active/passing helping
Eagly, 1987
Social Role Theory of sex differences
- Explains origin of sex stereotypes; evolutionary divisions of labor led to differential distributions into society/work positions (male leaders, women nurturers)
- People came to associate different sets of personality traits/abilities with men being more agentic and women more communal.
- Self-fulfilling prophesies occur; they become more different in their abilities; their gendered roles also require these different skills
- Role incongruity of women in leadership positions leads to prejudice and decreased abilities for women to perform and succeed in leadership positions as easily and as well as do men (see Eagly & Karau, 2002).
