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Biology Paper 1 > Disease and immunity > Flashcards

Disease and immunity Flashcards

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1
Q

A microorganism that causes a disease…

A

a pathogen

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2
Q

Give three examples of a pathogen

A
  • Bacteria
  • Viruses
  • Fungi
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3
Q

An immune response present from birth and is effective against a wide range of pathogens

A

Non-specific immune response

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4
Q

A slow response that is only effective against specific pathogens, however after re-infection the response is much faster

A

Specific immune response

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5
Q

A protein that all cells have on their surface which are used in cell recognition and can cause an immune response

A

Antigen

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6
Q

What are the three stages of the immune response?

A
  1. Phagocytosis
  2. T-cells (cellular response)
  3. B-cells (humoral response)
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7
Q

What are different about the antigens on cancerous or pathogen-infected cells?

A

The antigens on their surface are abnormal, which triggers an immune response

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8
Q

Pathogens sometimes release……………….which are poisons

A

toxins

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9
Q

What can sometimes happen if you receive cells from another person via an organ transplant?

A

The antigens would be different so the are classed as ‘foreign’ and an immune response is triggered. Your body would reject the transplanted organ(s) if drugs aren’t taken to suppress the recipient’s immune system

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10
Q

What is the sequence of phagocytosis?

A
  1. Phagocytes recognise and binds to antigen on the pathogen
  2. Phagocytes engulf the pathogens
  3. They are enclosed in a vacuole
  4. Lysosomes fuse with the vesicle
  5. Lysosomes contain lysozymes
  6. These digest the pathogen, by hydrolysis
  7. The phagocyte places antigens from the pathogen on its cell surface membrane to become an antigen-presenting cell
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11
Q

Phagocytosis is the…………..immune response

A

Non-specific

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12
Q

What activates the T-cell?

A

It has receptor proteins on its surface that bind to complementary antigens presented to it by phagocytes

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13
Q

T cells only respond to antigens presented by……..

A

other body cells

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14
Q

Summary of the role of T cells in cellular immunity

A
  1. Phagocytosis occurs
  2. Receptors on specific T cells fit exactly (complementary) with the antigens presented by phagocytes
  3. This activates T cells to divide rapidly by MITOSIS and from a clone of genetically identical cells
    4 .Different T-cells respond in different ways
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15
Q

What happens when the T-cells duplicate?

A

They can attach to the pathogen directly and more quickly by making holes in cell membrane

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16
Q

What do Cytotoxic T-cells do?

A

Destroy infected body cells by producing a protein which makes holes in the cell membrane

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17
Q

What do Memory cells do?

A

Enable a rapid response to future infections by the same pathogen

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18
Q

What do Helper T-cells do?

A

Releases chemical signals which stimulate other cells of the immune system, such as phagocytes, B-cells and Cytotoxic T-cells

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19
Q

Name the three types of T-cells?

A
  1. Cytotoxic
  2. Memory
  3. Helper
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20
Q

What is the main purpose of B-cells being activated by T-cells?

A

In order for antibodies to be produced

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21
Q

How is a B-cell activated?

A

Once a specific B-cell with a complementary antibody binds to an antigen, they are activated

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22
Q

Once a B-cell is activated, what happens?

A

They divide rapidly by MITOSIS to form a clone. This is known as clonal selection. The daughter cells are then able to produce antibodies which are complementary to the specific antigen. They will then develop into either: plasma or memory cells

23
Q

What do Plasma cells do (B-cells)?

A

Secrete antibodies directly however these cells only survive a few days, but in that time release many antibodies

24
Q

What do Memory cells do (B-cells)?

A

If they encounter the same antigen in the future, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of plasma and memory cells

25
Q

What is known as the secondary immune response?

A

Memory cells which provide long-term immunity against the original infection — the second time much more rapid and of greater intensity

26
Q

What is the structure of an antibody?

Y shape

A

Made up of amino acids (as they are proteins) and the specificity of an antibody depends on its variable region, which form the antigen binding sites - each one has a unique tertiary structure that’s complementary to one specific antigen. However all antibodies have the same constant region

27
Q

Which three organelles would you find in large quantities in Plasma cells and why?

A
  1. Mitochondria > for ATP for protein synthesis
  2. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum > Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis and RER transports them
  3. Golgi Apparatus > Packages proteins into vesicles and antibodies would be released into blood by exocytosis
28
Q

Give two similarities of the cellular response (T-cells) and the humoral response (B-cells)

A
  • Both produce Memory cells
  • Both involve lymphocytes
  • Both involve production of clones by MITOSIS
29
Q

Give two differences between the cellular response (T-cells) and the humoral response (B-cells)

A
  • T-cells = no antibodies > B-cells = antibodies made
  • T-cells = act on damaged cells > B-cells = act on circulating pathogens
  • T-cells = cellular > B-cells = humoral
30
Q

The antigens on the surface of each strain are different and this is known as…

A

antigenic variability

31
Q

What is a mutation?

A

A change in the base sequences of DNA

32
Q

When antigens and antibodies bind, what do they form?

A

An ‘antigen-antibody complex’ as they have complementary shapes

33
Q

What is the difference between an antigen and an antibody?

A

An antigen triggers an immune response and an antibody is part of an immune response. Antibodies bind to antigen and deactivate it

34
Q

What occurs when an antibody binds to an antigen?

A

Agglutination occurs which is when all the bacteria clump together so that it is easier for the phagocyte to engulf it

35
Q

Clones of identical B-plasma cells that produce identical antibodies

A

Monoclonal antibodies

36
Q

Give some uses in Monoclonal antibodies?

A
  • Medical diagnosis
  • Targeted drug treatments
  • Drug testing for athletes
  • Pregnancy test kits
37
Q

What is the ELISA test?

A

Uses monoclonal antibodies to detect the presence and amount of a specific protein in a sample

38
Q

What does the ELISA test involve?

A

Adding specific monoclonal antibodies to any solution suspected of containing a certain antigen. The antibodies will bind to it if the antigen is present. A colour indicator can be used to detect the presence

39
Q

Why are the washes needed between each stage in the ELISA test?

A
  • 1st one to remove any unbound antibodies
  • 2nd one to remove any antigens that haven’t attached
  • 3rd one to remove ant antibodies with enzyme that haven’t attached to pathogen
40
Q

What would happen if there are no antigens present in the sample of an ELISA test?

A

The antibodies would not have bound so would have been washed away in the 1st wash. No enzyme present to hydrolyse substrates so no colour change

41
Q

The ELISA test can be used to detect the amount of antigen present in a sample. Suggest how.

A

Use a colorimeter to quantify. More antigen present = more antigen-antibody complexes formed and more ES complexes so a darker colour would be produced

42
Q

What are some ethical issues surrounding the use of Monoclonal antibodies?

A

+ provides new treatments
+ has been successful in treating cancer
- involves animal testing
- drug testing is required, long process

43
Q

A type of immunity where an individual acquires antibodies from an outside source

A

Passive immunity

44
Q

A type of immunity where the immune system is stimulated to produce its own antibodies

A

Active immunity - memory cells are produced but it lasts longer. Can be acquired naturally or via vaccination

45
Q

What does a vaccine contain?

A

Dead or inactive pathogens as well as antigens that stimulate the production of specific plasma cell, memory cells and antibodies against a particular pathogen

46
Q

What factors determine whether or not a vaccination programme is successful?

A
  • The vaccine must have few side effects
  • Must be economically available in large quantities sufficient to immune a population
  • Must be easily stored and transported
47
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

When not all of the population have had the vaccination but there chance of getting the pathogen is lowered as they are less likely to come in contact with another unvaccinated person

48
Q

Why does vaccination not eliminate disease?

A

> Some individuals may have a defective immune system so the vaccine may fail
The pathogen may mutate quickly
Many varieties of the same organism

49
Q

Ethics of vaccination?

A 
\+ Less people getting the disease
\+ Herd immunity
- Animal testing is cruel
- Vaccines may have side effects
- Clinical trails on humans can go wrong
50
Q

How do viruses replicate if they cannot themselves?

A

Use the hosts cell’s enzymes and ribosomes to replicate, causing antibiotics to not inhibit them because they don’t target human processes

51
Q

What does the replication and release of HIV (virus) from T-helper cells cause?

A

Leads to a destruction of the cells and the number of T-helper cells decrease, meaning less B-cells are activated, therefore the body’s immune response is reduced. The individual becomes more susceptible to other infections and cancers

52
Q

Symptoms of HIV?

A

Infection of the lungs, fever, tiredness, weight loss, diarrhoea

53
Q

How is HIV treated?

A

Using a combination of anti-viral drugs which often have to be changed due to viruses having a high mutation rate becoming resistant

Biology Paper 1 (4 decks)

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