Digestion Flashcards
digestive system primary functions
- Digestion:
- Mechanical digestion (i.e. chewing, peristalsis).
- Chemical digestion (Gastric juices, Pancreatic enzymes, Bile and Enterocyte enzymes).
- Absorption:
- Primarily in the small intestine.
- Absorption into the blood and lymph. - Excretion:
- Waste materials (including toxins acted on by the liver) are excreted via the intestines as faeces. Elimination also occurs via the urine, skin and lungs.
The Digestive System
The Digestive System is a 30ft tube from mouth to anus, supported by accessory organs. It ultimately functions to nourish the tissues of the body - supporting cellular processes.
Digestive Tract: • Mouth • Pharynx • Oesophagus • Stomach • Small and Large intestine
Accessory organs: • Salivary glands • Pancreas • Liver • Gall bladder & biliary tract
Oral Cavity
The oral cavity is the first location in the Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT) where digestion occurs.
- Chewing breaks down food into smaller chunks and triggers the salivary glands to release saliva containing the enzyme Amylase, which breaks down starches.
- Food should be chewed up to 20 times per bite.
- Avoid drinking with meals as it dilutes saliva and gastric juices.
Salivary amylase
Salivary amylase starts breaking down long carbohydrate chains (polysaccharides), found in starchy foods, into smaller sugar chains. Fully digested in the small intestine.
- The optimal pH for salivary amylase to function is 6.8 (almost neutral). Amylase is denatured by stomach acid and becomes inactive once the bolus arrives in the stomach.
- Carbohydrates not broken down in the mouth remain unutilised as the small intestine can only absorb single sugars.
Saliva pH
The optimal saliva pH can be challenged by a more acidic environment in the mouth.
- Excess acidity in body tissues will be excreted via saliva, lowering its pH. This impairs the functionality of ‘salivary amylase’ and, therefore, impacts the digestion of carbohydrates in the oral cavity, reducing their utilisation in the body.
- The pH in the mouth can be lowered by factors such as refined sugars, meat and dairy, as well as processed foods, chewing gum, cigarettes, coffee and alcohol, chronic stress and being sedentary.
Exposure to heavy metals from sources such as dental amalgams lowers the pH in the mouth, too. Heavy metals are diluted by spirulina, corella, coriander.
Stomach
The bolus enters the stomach through the lower oesophageal sphincter. The sphincter acts as a seal to prevent acid reflux into the oesophagus.
- Food stretches the stomach, which results in the release of the hormone Gastrin and the stimulation of the enteric nerves in the stomach wall.
- Both stimulate the peristalsis of the stomach leading to the release and formation of gastric juice containing HCl and the digestive enzymes (lipase and pepsinogen).
- The stomach churns the bolus, mixing it with the gastric juice to break down food.
Stomach Enzymes
- Pepsinogen – an inactive enzyme which becomes active when exposed to HCl. Pepsinogen converts to the active form ‘pepsin’ which breaks down proteins into smaller protein chains.
- Gastric lipase – breaks down lipids (fats).
• The stomach absorbs some water, alcohol, iodine and fluoride. These substances enter the venous circulation and are escorted directly to the liver by the ‘portal vein’ to be processed.
Stomach Acid
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) has a pH of 2- 3
• Zinc, Vit. B6 are required to produce HCl.
Zinc sources are nuts, seeds (esp. pumpkin seeds), eggs, oysters, fish and meat.
Vit B6 sources are whole grains, sunflower, seeds, legumes (бобовые), walnuts, green vegetables, carrots, potatoes, avocado, fish.
• Stomach acid performs the following actions:
- Breaking down proteins (pepsin) and fats (lipase).
- Triggers pancreatic juice and bile release into the duodenum (via ‘CCK’) when the acidic chyme enters the small intestine.
- Eliminates micro-organisms such as bacteria, viruses and fungi, protecting against infection
Low Stomach Acid
Can be caused by:
- Chronic stress (excess sympathetic activity)
- Low vitamin B6 and Zinc
- Autoimmune gastritis.
- Medications (such as Proton Pump Inhibitors).
- Chronic Helicobacter pylori infection
- Ageing (production gradually declines over the age of 50).
- Vegan and vegetarians
• Stomach acid test: first thing in the morning, mix ½ teaspoon of bicarbonate soda in a glass of water and then swallow. Sufficient stomach acid is indicated by audible belching within 2-3 minutes. Early and repeated belching can indicate excessive stomach acid. If no belching within the first 3 minutes, stomach acid is considered low.
Low HCl leads to poor protein digestion, resulting in protein putrefaction in the small intestine.
• Protein putrefaction creates compounds called ‘polyamines’ which are implicated in colorectal cancer.
• Undigested food allows bacteria to proliferate in the small intestine
– Small Intestine Bacteria Overgrowth (SIBO).
- Reduced gastric activity results in less intrinsic factor (a glycoprotein secreted in the stomach), compromising B12 absorption.
- Can result in Osteoporosis (low Ca) and anemia (low Fe)
Low stomach acid can present as:
• Bloating, belching and flatulence within 1-2 hours after meals.
• Abdominal pain and ‘fullness’ after eating, with foul smelling stools.
How to Increase Stomach Acid
• Apple cider vinegar in a little water before meals (increase histamine - not for histamine intolerant people).
• Bitter herbs and foods stimulate stomach acid release. (but cooling effect. For cold people need warming with ginger, chili paper and fennel). Should be taken 15-20 minutes before meals.
Include:
- Gentian (extremely bitter; found in Swedish Bitters),
- Barberry bark (disbiosis, antimicrobial, SIBO, insulin resistance)
- Andrographis,
- Dandelion (stimulate peristalsis, diuretic, detoxification)
- goldenseal.
- fennel (antispasmodic, relaxes stomach)
Also include bitter foods such as rocket, chicory, artichoke and watercress.
- Zinc and B6-rich foods.
- Avoid over-eating and ensure meals are relaxed (eat mindfully). Avoid processed foods.
- Eat a diet rich in fruit and vegetables.
- Eat fermented vegetables such as sauerkraut.
- Himalayan and sea salt provide the chloride for HCl
H. Palory
Can result in cheeks rush, depleted and breaking nails, deep line in the middle of the tongue.
• Antimicrobial - mastic gum probiotics, brokkoli and sprouts, algies, wild salmon
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
- CCK: a hormone released from the duodenal wall, triggering the release of pancreatic juice and bile.
- CCK also induces a sense of satiety (fullness).
- The initial presence of the acidic chyme in the duodenum is a key factor in CCK release, meaning that low stomach acid can ultimately significantly impair digestion.
- Chyme has a pH of about 2. It is usually acted upon quickly by bicarbonate, which is secreted by the pancreas and liver. This neutralises chyme and creates a pH of about 6.5 in the duodenum.
Small Intestine
The small intestine is a 6.5m long structure that acts as a key site for digestion and absorption.
- 90% of nutrient absorption takes place in the small intestine.
- The small intestine has 3 regions:
- Duodenum (30cm) – most digestion occurs here, aided by the influx of pancreatic juices and bile. Some vitamins and minerals are absorbed, too.
- Jejunum (2.5m) – most absorption occurs here, i.e. sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins.
- Ileum (3.5m) – vitamin B 12 is absorbed.
Small Intestine - absorption
• The large surface is created mostly by the folding of the small intestine, forming finger-like projections known as ‘villi’ that contain blood and lymphatic capillaries.
Villi appear throughout the entire small intestine.
• To further increase the surface area, the cell membranes of small intestinal cells fold to create microscopic projections called ‘microvilli’.
This is also known as the brush border.
• Nutrients contact the microvilli and are absorbed into blood capillaries, with fatty acids entering lymph.
Brush Border Enzymes
‘Brush border enzymes’ are attached to the small intestinal lining and are imperative for absorption.
• The brush border enzymes break double-chained carbohydrates and proteins, allowing them to be absorbed.
Maltase, Sucrase, Lactase - break down sugar into glucose, fructose, galactose
Dipeptidase - break down proteins into amino acids
Lactase production decreases at age of 2-5 years old. Ciliac disease suffers has low border enzymes, esp.lactase
Intestinal Absorption
- Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are only absorbed once they have been digested into their simplest forms. This emphasises the importance of optimal function in areas such as the mouth, stomach, pancreas and gall bladder especially.
- E.g. proteins need to be chemically digested in the stomach and then in the small intestine into amino acids.
- Carbohydrates (single sugars) and amino acids enter blood capillaries of the small intestine to be sent to the liver.
- Fatty acids including fat-soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K) are digested in the small intestine and enter lymphatic capillaries.
Pancreas
The pancreas is an accessory digestive organ that has both exocrine and endocrine functions. It is about 6 inches long and sits in the posterior abdomen, behind the stomach.
Connected to the duodenum via the pancreatic duct, which is used to secrete pancreatic juice into the duodenum.
• The key exocrine function of the pancreas is to produce enzymes that digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats. These enzymes are secreted into the small intestine.
• Pancreatic enzymes include:
- Pancreatic Amylase: carbohydrate-digesting.
- Pancreatic Lipase: fat-digesting.
- Proteases (trypsin, chymotrypsin): protein-digesting.
• If pancreatic enzyme production is poor, foods ferment in the intestines, resulting in symptoms such as bloating, flatulence and abdominal pain about 1 hour after eating. The lack of digestion can also lead to weight loss.
Ginseng (женьшень), bitters stimulate pancreatic flow. If not enough - pancreatic enzymes supplements
Digestive Enzymes
Over-Eating: Bernard Jensen
- Bernard Jensen found that undigested Expelled stool of a materials are stored in the mucus-secreting bentonite bowel cleanse: lining of the intestines, impairing the absorption and delivery of nutrients to body tissues. The thicker the lining of undigested materials, the worse the absorption of nutrients.
- This would create an optimal environment for parasites and candida to flourish, as well as under-nourishing body tissues and organs.
- Supporting detoxification is key to aid the body’s elimination of these wastes. Intermittent fasting and dietary changes to minimise the digestive system load are also important. Jensen also recommended vegetable broths.
Use aloe-vera, chlorophyll, apple vinegar, skin brushing
Gallbladder
- The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac that sits under the liver.
- The gallbladder stores and releases bile that is produced by the liver. Bile consists mostly of water, as well as bile salts (conjugated with the amino acids glycine and taurine in the liver), cholesterol and bilirubin.
- Bile ducts collect bile produced by hepatocytes, before pooling in the gallbladder. Bile enters the small intestine via the common bile duct.
- Predominantly after ingesting fat, the gallbladder contracts and ejects bile down the common bile duct into the duodenum
Gallbladder functions
Biliary Tree
- Bile is carried from the hepatic ducts into the gall bladder via the ‘cystic duct’. Here, bile is stored.
- Upon stimulation (i.e. by CCK), the gall bladder contracts and ejects bile.
- The pancreatic duct (carries pancreatic enzymes) meets the common bile duct and carries both bile and pancreatic juice through the sphincter of Oddi into the duodenum.
- The adequate production and release of bile and pancreatic juice is dependent upon sufficient water consumption.
- Bitters also stimulate the release of pancreatic juice and bile via the biliary tree, supporting digestion.
- Dandelion
- Golden Seal
- Milk thistle
- Artichoke
- Glycine and Taurine make bile better
Liver
- The portal vein transports all nutrients and toxins from the GIT (mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestine and anus) to the liver.
- The liver filters 1.4 litres of blood every minute.
- The liver stores carbohydrates, fats, minerals such as iron, and vitamins A, D, E, K and B12. These can be released into the blood to be made available to cells as required.
- The liver also performs detoxification and deactivates hormones.
Liver Detoxification
- Hepatocytes convert toxins into non-toxic metabolites which can then be excreted from the body via the bowels, kidneys, skin or lungs.
- If the liver lacks essential nutrients, or if it is exposed to lots of trans-fats, heavy metals, alcohol, caffeine and pesticides, liver detoxification becomes impaired.
- This results in partially broken-down GIT toxins, dead cells and other wastes are being re-circulated.
Liver Detoxification
- Hepatocytes convert toxins into non-toxic metabolites which can then be excreted from the body via the bowels, kidneys, skin or lungs.
- If the liver lacks essential nutrients, or if it is exposed to lots of trans-fats, heavy metals, alcohol, caffeine and pesticides, liver detoxification becomes impaired.
- This results in partially broken-down GIT toxins, dead cells and other wastes are being re-circulated.(use shunt stone to decrease telephone radiation)
Liver can lead to sleep problems, tiredness
Liver Detoxification Phase I
- Most toxins that arrive inside hepatocytes undergo Phase I detoxification. It involves converting volatile toxins into smaller substances that are also more water-soluble. This is important for excretion.
- CYP450 enzymes create an active binding site on the toxin or hormone, so that it can be conjugated (in phase II).
- When Phase I is complete the toxin is oxidised. Free radicals are being formed and must be neutralised by anti-oxidants such as vitamin A, C and E to protect against oxidative damage. (melatonin is the most powerful antioxidant)
Liver Detoxification Phase II
- Involves “conjugation”: chemical reactions which modify reactive toxins to make them safe and excretable by binding a chemical group to them. The bound toxins are then pumped into the blood or bile for excretion mostly via the kidneys or bowels.
- Nutrients including sulphur (e.g. garlic and onions), magnesium, B vitamins are required for phase II. Whilst herbs such as dandelion, milk thistle, garlic, ginger, turmeric and liquorice root (increase blood pressure) support liver detoxification.
- The key antioxidant for neutralising free radicals in the liver is Glutathione, which is a tripeptide formed from cysteine, glycine and glutamine (also requires selenium - in Brazil nuts)
- The body eliminates wastes via the bowels, urine, sweat and exhalation.
Large Intestine - Regions
- Caecum – the appendix is attached, which is a twisted tube about 8cm in length that is almost entirely formed of immune tissue in its wall (containing macrophages and lymphocytes). It also acts a key
reservoir for beneficial gut bacteria. - Colon – ascending, transverse, descending regions.
- Rectum – pushes stool into anal canal.
- Anal canal – contains an involuntary internal anal sphincter and voluntary external anal sphincter.
Where are Nutrients absorbed
Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT)
- 70% of the immune system is based in the GIT as ‘Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue’ (GALT).
- GALT is found in the GIT wall (beneath the epithelium) and houses the leukocytes - macrophages and lymphocytes.
- These leukocytes learn to identify microbes through this close interaction with bacterial surface antigens (identity markers) located in their cell membranes.
- GALT clusters in the tonsils, as well as in the walls of the oesophagus, stomach and intestines. The appendix serves as a key location for GALT.
- Secretory IgA is secreted into the GIT mucosa, providing immune defence. IgA production is reduced during periods of stress
Saccharomyces Boulardy increases IgA and cure disbiosis
Large Intestine: Microflora
• The ‘microflora’ performs the following crucial functions:
- The final stages of nutrient extraction through microbial fermentation. This includes the fermentation of remaining carbohydrates to create the odorous waste by-products methane and hydrogen, as well as the fermentation of amino acids to create hydrogen sulphide.
- Therefore, excess flatulence with a strong odour can indicate poor digestion as a result of the bacterial action on the remaining food.
Microflora functions
Intestinal Barrier
- It plays an important role in protecting against ingested toxins, pathogens and undigested food.
- When damaged, the tight junctions become ‘leaky’. This allows large molecules including undigested proteins to enter circulation before being broken down into their simplest form (amino acids).
- Furthermore, the cell membranes of some gut bacteria can also abnormally enter the blood, leading to excessive immune responses, potentially including allergies and autoimmunity.
Front Mu Points
- The term Mu means ‘to gather or to collect’. Front Mu points are where the Qi of the organs gathers, and concentrate on the chest or abdomen, in close proximity to their organ.
- Front Mu points are used both in diagnosis and treatment. They become tender spontaneously or on pressure when their related organ is diseased.
- Apply gentle pressure on a Front Mu point to diagnose any organ imbalance. If tender, massaging the point with your thumb for two minutes can help.
Mu Points: Anatomical Locations
Reflex Zones of the Back:
Pulse Diagnosis
- The pulse is an energetic representation of the organs, channels and vital substances.
- Pulse diagnosis is one of the most important factors for determining constitution and the nature of disease.
- Place your index, middle and ring fingers above the radial artery.
Tongue Map
Tongue Cracks
Nail Diagnosis
Facial Mapping
Eyes Irodology
Hair
Teeths
Eyes
Facial diagnostic
Tongue coating
Tongue coatings color
Tongue shape and color
