Differential Educational Achievement of Social Groups in Contemporary Society

Question 1

Smith & Noble, Washbrook & Waldfogel, Hirsh

Material out of School factors that affect Educational Achievement

Answer 1

• Smith & Noble (1995) -> ‘Barriers to learning’, isolation from lack of resources, low income = less room at home for study, house prices near good schools very high, older students often work or care
• Washbrook & Waldfogel (2010) -> 31% of difference in spelling tests due to material disad.
• Hirsh (2007) -> ‘advantages for the better off’, structured extracurriculars to increase confidence/ cultural literacy, more likely to have private school

Question 2

Sugarman, Lockwood, Feinstein, Goodman & Gregg, Bernstein

Cultural out of School factors that affect Educational Achievement

Answer 2

• Cultural deprivation theory = class culture differences lead to differences in chance of success
• Sugarman (1970) -> insant v delayed gratification, fatalism of WC, collectivist v individualist
• Lockwood (1966) -> MC believe in meritocracy, WC believe in luck
• Feinstein (2013) and Goodman & Gregg (2010) -> cultural factors more important than material, parental attitudes to education, quality of mother/child time, how often the child is read to
• Bernstein (1972) -> restricted v elaborated codes in speech

Question 3

What action has been taken to improve the quality of education provided to students from predominantly WC areas?

Answer 3

• Emphasis on OFSTED to improve failing schools - eg. Academisation
• ‘Knowledge turn’ used to raise cultural literacy of WC
• OFSTED ‘outstanding’ grade focuses on quality + breadth of curriculum and extracurriculars
• Sullivan (2001) -> reading complex ficition & watching non-fiction TV has an impact on achievement

Question 4

Why can working class students in predominantly rich areas still be ‘left behind’?

Answer 4

• A-C economy in how schools are graded means schools with higher MC uptake to look successful
• The move to judging schools on A8 and P8 scores has adjusted this somewhat

Question 5

Hargreaves, Hester & Meller

Interactionist perspective on the influence of social class on teacher labelling

Answer 5

• Hargreaves, Hester & Meller (1975):
• Appearance, response to discipline, likeability and personality can lead to labelling as ‘good’ or ‘bad’. Subsequent behaviour labelled in the same way, nuance taken away
• MC behaviour likely to reflect teacher ‘ideal’

Question 6

Hargreaves, Hestor & Mellor (1975) conclusions about impact of negative labels on progress of pupils in education

Answer 6

A pupil’s course of ation will change based on a ‘prophecy’ of events

Question 7

Rosenthal & Jackson (1968) study on teacher expectation and impact - findings

Answer 7

• gave false info to primary teachers in USA about pupils’ IQ
• Pupils who were told they had a higher IQ/were believed to have a higher IQ did better

Question 8

Ball, Hallam, Dunne et al, Willis

Conclusions of research into Streaming and Setting

Answer 8

• Ball (1981) -> WC more likely to be in lower sets despite same attainment as MC peers
• Hallam (2009) -> Kids in higher sets have higher sense of esteem
• Dunne et al (2011) -> Students who get FSM likely to be in lower sets
• Willis (1977) -> Setting and Streaming doesn’t matter, WC kids hostile towards MC kids, male anti-school WC subcultures

Question 9

Bernstein, Bourdieu, Evans, Ball et al

Marxist argument on Elaborated v Restricted codes / Cultural Capital

Answer 9

• Bernstein (1972) -> speech shapes educational achievement, Educ. System operates in terms of MC/UC culture
• Bourdieu (1984) -> Possession/lack thereof of different types of capital shapes your opportunities
• Evans (2007) -> MC mothers able to give kids head start with cultural capital
• Ball et al (2004) -> MC parents use cultural capital to ‘play’ the system

Question 10

What has inspired greater emphasis on equal opportunities in schools since the 1980s?

Answer 10

• Research that suggested systematic discrimination against girls in education due to presentation in materials, attitudes of teachers, etc.

Question 11

Epstein, Haralambos & Holborn

Rothermel’s conclusions about boys’ achievement ouside of school compared to girls’ in school

Answer 11

• Home-schooled boys tended to do as well, sometimes better, than girls in school - what happens in school impacts boys’ achievement
• Epstein (1998) -> identifies ‘poor boys’ discourse that blames schools for failing to cater for boys
• Haralambos & Holborn (2013) -> generalisation that girls do better than boys is more applicable to WC boys - gender gap smaller within MC

Question 12

Sukhanda et al, Abraham, Mitos & Browne

How can it be argued that school has become ‘feminised’?

Answer 12

• The environment and what is expected in terms of neatness and tidiness
• Sukhanda et al (2000) -> boys feel that schools expect more of girls, so they feel less supported
• Abraham (1995) and Mitos & Browne (1998) -> deviant boys more popular with teachers, less criticism of boys, self-fulfilling prophecy of under achievement

Question 13

Coffee & Delamont

How can it be argued school has NOT become feminised?

Answer 13

• Coffee & Delamont (2000) -> Schools are patriarchal (seen in gender composition of leadership teams), hidden curriculum is male oriented (hierarchy, competition, etc)

Question 14

Prie, Machin & McNally, Hurst

Role of curriculum and assessment in differential gender achievement

Answer 14

• Girls tend to do better at coursework due to organisational and research skills over sustained period of time
• Prie (2001) -> pre-1988, O-levels were exams geared towards boys (high stakes assessments)
• Machin & McNally (2006) -> Changes to GCSEs coincided with greater achievement for girls
• Hurst (2014) -> Since ‘knowledge term’, boys are closing the gap with girls and overtook achievement in maths (no CW)

Question 15

Skelton, Francis, & Valkanova, Colley

Research on Gender and Subject Choice

Answer 15

• Skelton, Francis, & Valkanova (2014) -> stereotypical trends in post-14 choice
• Colley (1998) -> females end up in lower paid jobs, reasons for subject choice partly due to external factors

Question 16

Pattern of girls’ achievement since WWII

Answer 16

• Girls out-perform boys, gradually barriers to success removed
• There were some institutional barriers for women immediately post-WWII (eg. no extra places)

Question 17

Edwards & David (2000) conclusions on gender socialisation in the home and links to education

Answer 17

• Boys are allowed to be noisier at home
• Gender-differentiated primary socialisation can give girls advantages due to how education system works
• Girls taught more to conform through behaviour standards
• Girls more likely to converse with parents

Question 18

Edwards & David, Hannan

Influence of male ‘peer groups’ on success in education

Answer 18

• Edwards & David (2000) -> Boys’ behaviour more readily shaped by peer groups around macho values
• Hannan (2000) -> Girls relate more to one another based on perceptions in/out of the home, and through talking

Question 19

What is meant by a ‘genderquake’?

Answer 19

• The Wilkinson Argument:
• In the last 20 years of 20th C. young women experienced profound changes in attitudes and expectations of their futures
• Sharpe’s research in 70s and 90s supports this

Question 20

Mac en Ghaill, Peterson

What is meant by a crisis of masculinity?

Answer 20

• The argument that the development of more individualism and the realities of a post-industrial society has led to a lack of confidence and self esteem
• Mac en Ghaill (1994) - Masculinity crisis
• Peterson (2018) - Men have to shape a role for themselves and it’s getting harder for young men to shape that role

Question 21

Coard

How can the curriculum impact the achievement of some students?

Answer 21

Coard (1971)
* Lack of Black history/culture/success on curriculum has led to lower self esteem
* Disconnect between cultural experience in/out of school can lead to alienation
* National Curriculum remains ethnocentric
* Hidden curriculum - few Black teachers, lack of Black history and cultural literacy in curriculum which puts off students from becoming teachers (vicious cycle created)

Question 22

Gillborn (2002) on institutional racism in schools

Answer 22

• Teachers interpret policy in a way that disadvantages Black students (eg. gifted v. ‘no hopers’)
• In 2008, he argued that racism affects some more than others - ‘model minorities’ seen as having a positive attitude are treated differently to those with a gruff exterior

Question 23

Sewell (1997) - Impact of high proportion of lone parent households on Black African students

Answer 23

• Lack of success within the sub-group of Black males could be linked to a higher proportion of single parent households
• Less discipline and structure at home and lack of male role model can impact school performance

Question 24

Reason for more detentions/exclusions for some students in schools

Answer 24

Teachers misinterpret dress, speech, or language choice as a severe challenge to authority

Question 25

Sewell

O’Donnell & Sharpe - teacher labels, racism, and poor economic prospects

Answer 25

• Black males create a form of masculinity that earns respect from peers as a resonse to teacher labelling, and external facotrs such as racism and poor economic prospects
• Sewell (2007) - Being a ‘street hood’ gets more peer validations, educational failure is a badge to wear with pride, success viewed as being feminine

Question 26

Gillborn & Youdell - A-C economy in schools in 90s/00s

Answer 26

Schools judged on number of students with grades C<, some written off as ‘no hopers’ - Black males disproportionally written off

Question 27

Connolly

Why could it be argued that some minorities experience less racism in schools than others?

Answer 27

• They present in a way that is seen as ‘model’ to the education system
• Some minorities have their behaviour interpreted differently
• Connolly (1998) - teachers tended to see South Asian boys as immature instead of deviant

Question 28

How has it been argued by O’Donnell that some students respond differently to racism in school than others?

Answer 28

Some students are motivated by a perceived barrier or injustice to do well regardless - especially seen among Black girls

Question 29

Platt, Gillborn & Mirza, Modood, Archer & Francis, Basit

What have researchers asserted about home life, race, and educational achievement?

Answer 29

• Platt (2011) - regardless of ethnicity, poverty means you are less likely to do well - you’d expect Black students to do better given this
• Gillborn & Mirza (2000)- strong relationship between social class and achievement in all ethnic groups - Afro-Caribbean boys did less well than peers even when accounting for class
• Modood (2004) - Many ethnic minority parents have more cultural capital than is typical for their income/class
• Archer & Francis (2007) - Chinese parents place exceptionally high value on education
• Basit (2013) - Communal sense in relatively poor Asian communities of wanting the next generation to do better - found a way to provide space/structure for children to do work at home