Differential educational Achievement (Inequality)

Question 1

What are the three types of differential education achievement?

Answer 1

• Class and achievement
• Gender and achievement
• Ethnicity and achievement

Question 2

What are the internal factors affecting class and achievement?

Answer 2

• Cultural factors
• Material factors
• Cultural Capital

Question 3

Define ‘cultural deprivation’.

Answer 3

Being deprived of cultural values which facilitate educational success.

Question 4

What four elements consist of cultural deprivation?

Answer 4

• Language
• Parent’s education
• Parent’s attitudes and values
• Working-class subculture

Question 5

How is language believed to cause differential educational achievement?

Answer 5

It is believed by Basil Bernstein (1975) are two codes of language.

• Restricted Code: (Working Class)
  Limited vocab, grammatically simple, descriptive and context bound.
• Elaborated Code: (Middle Class)
  Wider vocab, grammatically complex, speech is varied and communicates abstract ideas. It’s context free.

Basil Bernstein (1975) –> recognises that working class language it restrictive but also schools teach using the elaborated code without necessarily teaching children how to use it.

Question 6

How does parent’s education believed to cause differential educational achievement?

Answer 6

Douglas (1964)
- Working class parents have less value for education, they're less ambitious for for their children and less encouraging. They are also less likely to meet with teachers and discuss their child's progress. 

Feinstein (2008)
- Argues parent's own education is the most important factor. Middle class parents are better educated they give their children an advantage by socialising them.

Question 7

How is parenting style believed to cause differential educational achievement?

(Attitudes and values)

Answer 7

• Educated parents are consistent with discipline and have high expectations for their children. They support achievement by actively encourage learning/exploring.
• Working Class parents: harsh and inconsistent parenting, discipline doing “as told/behaving” which prevents children from learning independence and self control.

Question 8

How are parent’s education behaviours believed to cause differential educational achievement?

(Attitudes and values)

Answer 8

Educated parents are more aware of what children need, as a result they encourage behaviour such as; reading, teaching their children letters, numbers, colours shapes, songs and poems, ect…

They are more successful in establishing good relationships with teachers and better at guiding their children’s reactions at school to be positive.

Question 9

How is parent’s use of income believed to cause differential educational achievement?

(Attitudes and values)

Answer 9

Bernstein & Young (1967):

Not only do educated parents typically have higher income, they also spend it in more beneficial ways. For example, they buy educational toys, books, games and activities that stimulate reasoning and intellectual skills. They also have a better understanding of nutrition and development.

Working class children don’t experience this and therefor start school without the intellectual skills to progress.

Question 10

What are the four components of working class subcultures?

Answer 10

Barry Sugarman (1970):

• Fatalism:
  ‘What ever will be will be.’ There is nothing you can do to change your fate.

- Collectivism: 
Valuing being part of a group more than succeeding as  an individual. Contrasts with middle class who view that an individual shouldn't be held back by the group .

-Immediate Gratification:
Seeking pleasure in the present rather than making sacrifices to get rewards in the future whereas the middle class emphasise deferred gratification.  

-Present-time orientation:
Seeing the present as more important than the future so therefor have no long-term goals.

Question 11

Evaluate whether cultural deprivation is a myth?

Answer 11

Nell Keddie (1973):
A 'myth' that victim blames. Failure at school can't be blamed on a culturally deprived home background. Keddie argues that  child cant be deprived of their own culture. He argues that children are culturally different not deprived. 

Tronya & Williams (1986):
The problem isn’t children’s code of language but the attitudes towards it. They argue that teachers have a speech hierarchy.

Blackstone and Mortimore (1994): 
Rejects that working class parents aren't interested in their children's education and argues that instead that the reasoning for attending fewer parents evening ect if due to working longer more irregular hours not because they don't want to attend. They may want to help their children but lack the knowledge or education to do so.

Question 12

What three material factors cause differential educational achievement?

Answer 12

• Housing
• Diet & Health
• Financial Support

Question 13

How is housing believed to cause differential educational achievement?

Answer 13

• Overcrowding:
  Less room for educational activities, no room to do homework, disturbed sleep from sharing beds/bedrooms ect..

-Temporary Accommodation:
Lack of safe space to play, moving frequently may result in constant changes of school and a disrupted education.

-Affect on health and welfare:
Cold or damp housing may cause more ill health . Families in temporary accommodation may suffer more psychological distress, infections, and accidents resulting in absence from school.

Question 14

Discuss Bourdieu’s three types of capital.

Answer 14

Economic Capital:
- Students can pay for private tuition which leads to educational capital.

Cultural Capital: 
- Leads to educational capital as education is geared towards middle-class culture and students with cultural capital can use it to their advantage. 

Economic Capital:
- Allows students to take part in costly ‘cultural’ activities which boosts their educational capital.

Question 15

Statistics to support class and achievement deprivation.

Answer 15

Attainment score of 8 - 2017

Disadvantaged: 37%
Non Disadvantaged: 49.8%
Difference of: 12.8%

FSM: 35%
Non FSM: 48%
Difference of: 13%

Question 16

Statistics to support gender and achievement deprivation.

Answer 16

Attainment score of 8 - 2017

Girls: 49%
Boys: 43.7%
Difference of: 5.3%

Attainment score of 5 A* - C - 2015

Girls: 70.9%
Boys: 59.2%
Difference of: 11.7%

(supports the idea of coursework benefiting girls, but still a gap in 2017 when coursework was cut.)

(still not as significant as the gap for class)

Question 17

What four factors affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 17

• Feminism
• Changes in the family
• Changes in women’s employment
• Changes in girls ambitions

Question 18

How did ‘feminism’ affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 18

Second wave feminism and the introduction of the contraceptive pill in the 60s brought on a sexual revolution, shifting the attitudes of women.

McRobbie (1994)

• Content analysis of magazines in the 70s and 90s.
  1970s: focused on cleaning, good housewife ect
  1990s: focused on independence, careers, aspirations ect.

Acted as a catalyst for all other factors due to bringing on a change in attitude.

Question 19

How did ‘changes in the family’ affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 19

Divorce Reform Act 1969 - increase in divorce rates which lead to matri-focal households.

This inspires girls to either be successful and independent like their mothers or to work hard and be independent so they don’t have to struggle like their mothers.

Also decrease in marriage and increase in co-inhibiting.

Question 20

How did ‘changes in employment’ affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 20

Equal pay act: 1970
Sex Discrimination Act: 1975 (halved pay gap 30% - 15%)
Equality Act: 2010

Legislation gave women more opportunities in employment which raised their self esteem and aspirations.

Question 21

How did ‘change in girls ambitions’ affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 21

Sue Sharpe (1994)

• Interviewed girls in the 1970s and 1990s about their ambitions for their futures.
  1970s: Girls wanted love, children, marriage ect
  1990s: Girls wanted qualifications, careers, independence ect

O’Conner (2006)

• Study of gilrs aged 14-17
• Found that marriage and children were not a priority or major focus of their futures.
• BUT: working class girls haven’t shifted towards these ambitions, still value love and marriage ect, arguably due to not believing academic success is achievable.

Question 22

What are the six internal factors affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 22

• Equal opportunities policies
• Positive role models in schools
• GCSE and coursework
• Teacher attention
• Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum
• Selection and league tables.

Question 23

How did ‘equal opportunities policies’ affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 23

Education Reform Act, 1988:

Removed inequality/sexism in the curriculum, both boys and girls learn’t all subjects.

Programmes like GIST and WISE encouraged girls into STEM subjects as well as create more opportunities.

Question 24

How did ‘positive role models in school’ affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 24

More female teachers and headteachers in schools act as role models for girls.

However, SLT and STEM subjects are still dominated by men.

Secondary schools:
Headteachers 1992: 22%
Headteachers 2012: 37%
–> 10 years, increase of 15% in headteacher positions

Secondary schools:
Teachers 1992: 49%
Teachers 2012: 61%
–> 10 years, increase of 12% in headteacher positions

Primary schools:
Headteachers 1992: 50%
Headteachers 2012: 71%
–> 10 years, increase of 21%

Primary schools:
Teachers 1992: 81%
Teachers 2012: 86%
–> 10 years, increase of 5%

Question 25

How did ‘GCSEs ad coursework’ affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 25

Before GCSEs, the gap between boys and girls is fairly small, steeply rose with the introduction.

Mitsos and Browne (1998) argued that coursework was favoured towards girls because they’re more organised and presentable ect…

–> Whilst the increase after introduction of GCSEs and coursework is true, attainment scores of 8 in 2017 shows a 5% gap when coursework was no longer used.

Question 26

How does ‘teacher attention’ affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 26

Teachers are more positive to girls than they are boys which leads to the self fulfilling prophecy,

Swann (1998)

• Found differences in teacher communication to boys and girls.
• Boys dominate the whole class discussion whereas prefer group work and are better at listening and co-operating.
• Teachers respond more positively to girls as a result, leading to labelling and self fulfilling prophecy.

Question 27

How did ‘challenging stereotypes’ affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 27

Removal of sexist images/material in textbooks and other learning materials

Weiner (1995)
- Teachers challenge stereotypes .

Question 28

How did ‘selection and league tables’ affect the achievement of girls?

Answer 28

Marketisation allowed schools to make themselves more attractive to girls as a result of girls being more desirable because of their better results.

Jackson (1998)
- League tables improved opportunities for girls, girls and attractive to schools and boys are not, results in labelling and self prophecy.

Question 29

Define ‘symbolic capital’.

Answer 29

Refers to the status, recognition and sense of worth that we are able to obtain from others.

Question 30

What three ways do working class girls gain symbolic capital?

Answer 30

• Constructing desirable and glamorous hyper-heterosexual identities. (hair, makeup, brands, clothes)
• Having boyfriends
• Being loud, outspoken, independent and assertive.

Question 31

Define Bourdieu’s belief of ‘symbolic violence.’

Answer 31

The harm done by denying someone symbolic capital by defining their culture as worthless.

Question 32

What 5 reasons affect boys and achievement?

Answer 32

• Boys literacy
• Globalisation and decline of traditional men’s jobs
• Feminisation of education
• Shortage of male primary school teachers
• Laddish subcultures

Question 33

How does ‘boys literacy’ affect boys achievement?

Answer 33

According to DCSF (department of children, schools and families) the gender gap is the result of poorer literacy in boys.

This is cause by:

• Parents spent less time reading with their sons
• Mothers do most of the reading to their children so it may be regarded as feminine.
• Boys leisure pursuits like sports do little to develop language and communication kills.
• In comparison with girls, adopt a ‘bedroom culture’ of staying in and talking to friends.

Question 34

How does ‘globalisation’ affect boys achievement?

Answer 34

Significant decline in heavy industry has resulted in decline in job opportunities for men.

Mitsos and Browne: claim that this resulted in an identity crisis for men and many boys now believe they have little prospect of getting a proper job, undermining their motivation and self-esteem.

However, whilst there has been a decline in theses industrial jobs, it can be argues that this isn’t a reason for underachievement because they never required qualification in the first place.

Question 35

How does ‘feminisation of education’ affect boys achievement?

Answer 35

Tony Sewell claims that boys fall behind because education is feminised - schools don’t nurture masculine traits such as competitiveness and leadership. Also believes that coursework advantages girls and should be replaced by final exams.

Question 36

How does ‘shortage of male primary teachers’ affect boys achievement?

Answer 36

• Lack of male role models, only 14% of priamry school teachers are male.
• Yougov (2007)
  39% of 8-11 year old have no lessons with male teachers whatsoever.
  42% of boys said the presence of a male teacher made them behave better and work harder.
  Women unable to give boys the discipline they need.

However, Becky Francis (2006)
- 2/3 7-8 year olds said gender of teacher didn’t matter

Barbara Read (2008) 
- Studied the type of language teachers use to express criticism or disapproval of pupils. She identified two types of language (discourse) 

• A disciplinarian discourse: the teachers authority is made explicit and visible. EG: shouting, an exasperated voice or sarcasm.
  - A liberal discourse: the teachers authority is implicit and invisible.

Question 37

How does ‘laddish subcultures’ affect boys achievement?

Answer 37

Debbie Epstein (1998)
- Examined the way masculinity is constructed within school. She found working class boys are likely to be harassed, labelled as sissies and subject to homophobic verbal abuse if they were to appear as swots. 

Francis (2001) found boys were more concerned than girls with being labelled by peers as ‘swots’ as this label is a greater threat to their masculinity.

Non manual work is deemed as effeminate and and inferior.

Question 38

What 6 external factors affect ethnic differences in achievement.

Answer 38

• Cultural deprivation
• Intellectual and linguistic skills
• Attitudes and values
• Family structure and parental support
• Material deprivation

Question 39

How does ‘cultural deprivation’ affect achievement in ethnic groups?

Answer 39

As with explanations for class, cultural deprivation theory sees the underachievement of ethnic groups as the result of inadequate socialisation in the home it has three main aspects;

• Intellectual and linguistic skills
• Attitudes and values
• Family structure and parental support

Question 40

How does ‘intellectual and linguistic skills’ affect achievement in ethnic minorities?

Answer 40

Lack of intellectual and linguistic skills is a major contributing factor for underachievement.

Many children from low-income black families lack intellectual stimulation and enriching experience making them poorly equipped for school as a result of not being able to develop reasoning and problem-solving skills.

Similarly, the language spoken by low-income black families is inadequate for educational success, it’s ungrammatical, disjointed, and incapable of expressing abstract ideas.

Question 41

How does ‘attitudes and values’ affect achievement in ethnic minorities?

Answer 41

Lack of motivation is a major cause if failure amongst black children. Some sociologists argue that some black children are socialised into a subculture that instils a fatalistic ‘live for today’ attitude that does not value education and leaves them unequipped for success.

Question 42

How does ‘family structure and parental support’ affect achievement in ethnic minorities?

Answer 42

Daniel Moynihan (1965)
- Argues that because many black families are headed by a lone mother, their children are deprived of adequate care because she has to struggle in the absence of the breadwinner. The fathers absences also means boys also lack a role model of male achievement. 

Ken Pryce (1979)

• Family subculture contributes contribute to underachievement of black Caribbean pupils in Britain.
• From a comparison of black and Asian pupils, Asians are higher achievers because their culture is more resistant to to racism and gives them a greater sense of self-worth.
• He argues that black Caribbean is less cohesive and resistant to racism and as a result have a low self esteem and underachieve.
• Pyrce argues that the difference is the result of the difference impact of colonialism on the two groups. The experience of slavery meant they lost their language, religion, and entire family.

Question 43

How does Sewell (2009) believe fathers affect achievement?

Answer 43

It’s not the lack of fathers as role models that affects achievement but instead argues that a lack of fatherly nurturing or ‘tough love’. This results in black boys finding it hard to overcome the emotional and behavioural difficulties of adolescence.

In the absence of a nurturing father, street gangs of other fatherless boys offer ‘perverse loyalty and love’. These present boys with a media inspired role model of anti-school black masculinity.

Question 44

How are Asian families benefited in terms of educational achievement?

Answer 44

Ruth Lupton (2004)
- Argues that adult authority within Asian families is similar to the model that operates in schools. She found out that respectful behaviour towards adults was expected from children - this had a knock on affect in schools as parents were more likely to be supportive of school behaviour policies.

Question 45

Why do white working class pupils underachieve?

Answer 45

Andrew McCulloch (2014) 
- Surveyed 16,000 pupils and found that ethnic minority pupils are more likely to aspire to go to university than white British pupils. 

Lupton (2004)
- Studied 4 mainly working class schools - two predominantly white-British pupils. 

• Teachers reported poorer levels of behaviour and discipline in white working class schools despite the fact that they had fewer children on FSM. Teachers blamed this on lower levels of parental support and the negative attitude that the white working class parents had.

Gillian Evans (2006) 
- Argues that street culture in white working class areas can be brutal and so young people have to learn to withstand intimidation and intimidate others. In this context, school can be a place where the power games that young people engage in on the street are played out again, bringing disruption and making it hard for pupils to succeed.

Question 46

How does cultural deprivation affect ethnic minorities?

Answer 46

Being deprived of adequate primary socialisation results in cultural deprivation, lacking the skills required to succeed at school.

Ethnic minorities are more likely to experience this deprivation.

Question 47

How does material deprivation affect ethnic minorities?

Answer 47

A lacking of physical necessities that are seen as essential for normal life and development. Educational failure is seen as a result of factors such as substantial housing, low income, poor physical and nutritional health ect.

Guy Palmer (2012)

• Almost half of all ethnic minority children live in low income households
• Ethnic minorities are twice as likely to be unemployed
• Almost half of Bangladeshi and and Pakistani workers earn less than £7 p/h vs 1/4 of white British workers.
• 70% of the Bangladeshi population live in 20% of the most deprived areas of the UK.

Question 48

Statistics to support cultural v material debate.

Answer 48

Material:

2011:
- 86% of Chinese girls on FSM achieved 5 or more GCSEs compared with only 65% of white girls achieving GCSEs - who weren’t on FSM.

Question 49

How does racism affect the achievement of ethnic minorities?

Answer 49

Cultural:

John Rex (1986)

• Racism leads to social exclusion which in turn worsens the poverty faced by ethnic groups.
• Ethnic minorities are more likely to be forced into substandard housing than white people of the same class as a result of their race.

Wood et al (2010)

• Further supported this by sending 3 job applications closely matching in ability using names associated to different ethnic groups to 1000 job vacancies. ( 1 application came from a seemingly white applicant, the rest from ethnic applicants)
• –> 1 in 16 ethnic minority applicants were offered interview in comparison to 1 in 9 ‘white’ applicants.

Question 50

How does labeling and the self fulfilling prophecy result in underachievement?

Answer 50

Different teacher labels are given to different ethnic minorities.

Teachers see Black and Asian pupils as far from the ‘ideal pupil’. Black pupils are disruptive whereas Asian pupils are seen as passive. —- Negative labels result in the self fulfilling prophecy.

Gillborn & Youdell (2000)

• Teachers were quicker to discipline black pupils than others for the same behaviour as a result of ‘racialised expectations.’
• Black pupils felt teachers underestimated their abilities and picked on.

–> Gillborn & Youdell conclude that much of conflict between white teachers and black pupils stems from racial stereotypes.

Question 51

How do pupil subcultures result in underachievement?

Answer 51

Pupils respond to racism by in a variety of ways; disrupting and withdrawing or refusing to accept the label and even decide to prove it wrong.

Mary Fuller (1984)

• Studied a group of black girls in year 11.
• Instead of accepting negative stereotype of themselves but unlike the other successful pupils didn’t seek the approval of teachers.
• In private they worked conscientiously but when in school or around peers gave the appearance of not doing so and showed deliberate disregard to school routines.

Question 52

What is the ethnocentric curriculum and how does it result in underachievement in ethnic minorities.

Answer 52

The idea that the curriculum reflects the culture of only one ethnic group, the dominant one - white.

Languages, literature & music;
Very little provision for teaching Asian languages in comparison to European languages. Largely ignoring non-European languages, literature and music.

History;
Ball (1994) criticises the national curriculum for ignoring ethnic diversity and promoting ‘little Englandism’ often ignoring the history of Black and Asian pupils.

Question 53

When was the education act bought in place?

Answer 53

1870

Question 54

When was education made compulsory for all?

Answer 54

1880

Question 55

When was the tripartite system introduced and what did it involve?

Answer 55

1944

3 Types of schools;

• Grammer –> 11+ test
• Secondary modern –> limitted academic ciriculum, sat foundation exams
• Technical school –> vocational skills

Question 56

When was the comprehensive system introduced?

Answer 56

1965 - under labour gov

Pupils went to their local school which in turn drove down standards due to lack of competition of one another as a result of schools not being answerable to the consumer.

Question 57

When was the Education Reform Act introduced and what did it entail?

Answer 57

1988

Under Thatcher & Conservative government

Introduced a policy of marketisation aimed to improve standards by placing schools in competition with one another.

Introduction of; national curriculum (also brought greater gender equality) , ofsted, league tables, funding formula - parentocracy.

Question 58

How and when did Tony Blair aim to reduce inequality in attainment scores?

Answer 58

1977:

EMA - Education Maintainance Allowance - paid a wage to those in further education who had 100% attendance

Education action zones providing deprived areas with additional resources/opportunity

Pupil Premium

Question 59

How did education policies change in 2010 - 2015 under the coalition government?

Answer 59

Conservatives & Lib Dems

‘Outstanding’ schools become academies and run themselves

Free schools set up by middle-class parents possessing the educational capital

Question 60

What happened to education as of 2015 onwards?

Answer 60

Conservatives

Increasing privatisation