Diagnosis Flashcards
Stress
Adjustment disorder
Acuate stress disorder
PTSD
Anxiety disorders
characterized by unrealistic, irrational fears or anxieties that cause significant distress and/or impairments in functioning. They include specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia and generalized anxiety disorder. Many people with one anxiety disorder will experience at least one more anxiety disorder and/or depression either concurrently or at a different point in their lives. The common genetic vulnerability is manifested at a psychological level at least in part by the personality trait called neuroticism. Brain structures most centrally involved in most disorders are generally in the limbic system, and the neurotransmitter substances that are most centrally involved are GABA, norepinephrine, and serotonin.
Phobia
a persistent and disproportionate fear of some specific object or situation that presents little or no actual danger and yet leads to a great deal of avoidance of these feared situations. As we will see, the three main categories of phobias are (1) specific phobia, (2) social phobia, and (3) agoraphobia.
Specific phobia
present if a person shows strong and persistent fear that is triggered by the presence of a specific object or situation and leads to significant distress and/or impairment in a person’s ability to function. People with this disorder they often show an immediate fear response that often resembles a panic attack except for the existence of a clear external trigger. Generally, people with specific phobias recognize that their fear is somewhat excessive or unreasonable although occasionally they may not have this insight. Avoidance is a cardinal characteristic of phobias. Phobic behavior tends to be reinforced because every time the person with a phobia avoids a feared situation, his or her anxiety decreases.
Adjustment y disorder
Adjustment Disorder - psychological response to a common stressor that results in clinically significant behavioral or emotional symptoms. For the diagnosis to be given, symptoms must begin within 3 months of the onset of the stressor. In adjustment disorder, the person’s symptoms lessen or disappear when the stressor ends or when the person learns to adapt to the stressor. In cases where the symptoms continue beyond 6 months, the diagnosis is usually changed to some other mental disorder. It is commonly caused by unemployment.
Acute stress disorder
er - the diagnosis of PTSD requires that symptoms must last for at least 1 month. Acute stress disorder is a diagnostic category that can be used when symptoms develop shortly after experiencing a traumatic event and last for at least 2 days. The existence of this diagnosis means that people with symptoms do not have to wait a whole month to be diagnosed with PTS
Post traumatic stress dissorder
In DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder is grouped with other disorders in a new diagnostic category called trauma- and stressor-related disorders. In order for the diagnosis to be made, symptoms must be present for at least one month (before that the diagnosis would be acute stress disorder). In PTSD a traumatic event is thought to cause a pathological memory that is at the center of the characteristic clinical symptoms associated with the disorder. These memories are often brief fragments of the experience and typically concern events that happened just before the moment with the largest emotional impact. Symptoms are grouped into four main areas and con- cern the following: intrusion (recurrent reexperiencing of the traumatic event through nightmares and intrusive images), avoidance, negative alterations in cognitions and mood, arousal and reactivity.
present if a person shows strong and persistent fear that is triggered by the presence of a specific object or situation and leads to significant distress and/or impairment in a person’s ability to function. People with this disorder they often show an immediate fear response that often resembles a panic attack except for the existence of a clear external trigger. Generally, people with specifi x recognize that their fear is somewhat excessive or unreasonable although occasionally they may not have this insight. Avoidance is a cardinal characteristic of x behavior tends to be reinforced because every time the person with a x avoids a feared situation, his or her anxiety decreases. One category of specific phobias that has a number of interesting and unique characteristics is blood- injection-injury phobia. In this case, people experience at least as much disgust as fear. This is very frequently accompanied by nausea, dizziness, or fainting, which does not occur with other specific phobias. From an evolutionary standpoint, by fainting, the person being attacked might inhibit further attack, and if an attack did occur, the drop in blood pressure would minimize blood loss.
Specific phobia
characterized by disabling fears of one or more specific social situations. A person fears that she or he may be exposed to the scrutiny and potential negative evaluation of others or that she or he may act in an embarrassing or humiliating manner. DSM-5 also identifies two subtypes of x one of which centers on performance situations such as public speaking and one of which is more general and includes nonperformance situations. Nearly two- thirds of people with x suffer from one or more additional anxiety disorders at some point in their lives, and depression is found in half of the cases.
X often seems to originate from simple instances of direct or vicarious classical conditioning such as experiencing or witnessing a perceived social defeat or humiliation, or being or witnessing the target of anger or criticism. From a evolutionary standpoint, it has been proposed that x evolved as a by-product of dominance hierarchies that are a common social arrangement among animals such as primates. People with x endure being in their feared situations rather than running away and escaping them, as people with animal phobias often do. People who have x show greater activation of the amygdala in response to negative facial expressions. Cognitive biases play a major role: people with x tend to expect that other people will reject or negatively evaluate them, and they tend to interpret ambiguous social information in a negative rather than a benign manner.
The most important temperamental variable is behavioral inhibition. There is a modest genetic contribution to x but an even larger proportion of variance in who develops social phobia is due to nonshared environmental factors, which is consistent with a strong role for learning.
Social phobia
characterized by the occurrence of panic attacks that often seem to come “out of the blue.” According to the DSM-5 criteria for the person must have experienced recurrent, unexpected attacks and must have been persistently concerned about having another attack or worried about the consequences of having an attack for at least a month. For such an event to qualify as a full- blown panic attack, there must be abrupt onset of at least 4 of 13 symptoms. Most of these symptoms are physical, although three are cognitive are fairly brief but intense, usually reaching peak intensity within 10 minutes; the attacks often subside in 20 to 30 minutes and rarely last more than an hour. sometimes occur during relaxation or during sleep (known as nocturnal panic). with or without agoraphobia typically begins in the 20s to the 40s, but sometimes begins in the late teen years. The vast majority of people with panic disorder (83 per- cent) have at least one comorbid disorder, most often generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, specific phobia, PTSD, depression, and substance-use disorders.
The first panic attack a person experiences frequently occurs following feelings of distress or some highly stressful life circumstance.
Panic disorder
n this disorder the most commonly feared and avoided situations include streets and crowded places such as shopping malls, movie theaters, and stores. Sometimes, x develops as a complication of having panic attacks in one or more such situations. Typically people with x are also frightened by their own bodily sensations, so they also avoid activities that will create arousal. It is important to notice that many patients with x do not experience panic
Agoraphobia
chronic, excessive and unreasonable worry might be diagnosed as general DSM-5 criteria specify that the worry must occur on more days than not for at least 6 months and that it must be experienced as difficult to control. The worry must be about a number of different events or activities. People suffering from live in a relatively constant, future-oriented mood state of anxious apprehension, chronic tension, worry, and diffuse uneasiness that they cannot control. They also engage in subtle avoidance activities such as procrastination. Often co-occurs with other disorders, especially other anxiety and mood disorders. In addition, many people with like Rodney) experience occasional panic attacks without qualifying for a diagnosis of panic disorder.
GAD
ned by the occurrence of both obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors performed in an attempt to neutralise such thoughts. Obsessions are persistent and recurrent intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses that are experienced as disturbing, inappropriate, and uncontrollable. Compulsions involve overt repetitive behaviors that are performed as lengthy rituals, which may involve covert mental rituals. There are often very rigid rules regarding exactly how the compulsive behavior should be performed. There is a continuum of “insight” among persons with OCD about exactly how senseless and excessive their obsessions and compulsions are. Diagnosis requires that obsessions and compulsions take at least 1 hour per day. Many obsessive thoughts involve contamination fears, fears of harming oneself or others, and pathological doubt. There are five primary types of compulsive rituals: cleaning, checking, repeating, ordering or arranging, and counting. Some studies showed little or no gender difference in adults, which would make quite different from most of the rest of the anxiety disorders. frequently co-occurs with other anxiety disorders.
OCD
characterised by obsession with some perceived or imagined flaw or flaws in their appearance to the point they firmly believe they are disfigured or ugly. Most people with have compulsive checking behaviors, and another very common symptom is avoidance of usual activities because of fear that other people will see the imaginary defect and be repulsed. People with may focus on almost any body part and they frequently seek reassurance from friends and family about their defects. They also frequently seek reassurance for themselves by checking their appearance in the mirror countless times in a day. This disorder, which is not rare, seems to be approximately equal in men and women. People with very commonly also have a depressive diagnosis, and rates of comorbid social phobia and obsessive-compulsive disorder are also quite substantial. They are even more convinced that their obsessive beliefs are accurate than are people with OCD. There is overlap in the potential causes of and OCd- the same neurotransmitter (serotonin) and the same sets of brain structures are implicated in the two disorders.
Body dysmorphia
people with both acquire and fail to discard many possessions that seem useless or of very limited value, in part because of the emotional attachment they develop to their possessions. People with compulsive may be neurologically distinct from people with OCD - relative lack of responsiveness to the same medications that are often successful in reducing the severity of other forms of OCD and recent findings that different genes seem to be implicated in OCD without c versus OCD with c support this hypothesis. Traditional behavioral therapy using exposure and response prevention is also less effective than for traditional OCD.
Hoarding disorder
this disorder has as its primary symptom the urge to pull out one’s hair from anywhere on the body, resulting in noticeable hair loss. The hair pulling is usually preceded by an increasing sense of ten- sion, followed by pleasure, gratification, or relief when the hair is pulled out. It usually occurs when the person is alone, and the person often examines the hair root, twirls it off, and sometimes pulls the strand between their teeth and/or eats it.
Trichotillomania
Phobia
Specific phobia
Agoraphobia
Social phobia
Mood disorder and suicide
Major depressive disorder
Persistent depressive disorder
Cyclothymic disorder
Bipolar disorder 1 and 2
e diagnostic criteria for require that a person must be in a x episode and never have had a manic, hypomanic, or mixed episode. Few if any depressions occur in the absence of significant anxiety. When a diagnosis of is made, it is usually also specified whether this is a first, and therefore single, episode or a recurrent episode. Depressive episodes typically last about 6 to 9 months if untreated. Return of symptoms is of one of two types: relapse and recurrence. Relapse refers to the return of symptoms within a fairly short period of time, a situation that probably reflects the fact that the underlying episode of depression has not yet run its course, whereas recurrence refers to the onset of a new episode of depression.
MDD
formerly called dysthymic disorder or dysthymia is a disorder characterized by persistently depressed mood most of the day, for more days than not, for at least 2 years. Periods of normal mood may occur briefly, but they usually last for only a few days to a few weeks (and for a maximum of 2 months). These intermittently normal moods are one of the most important characteristics distinguishing persistent depressive disorder from MDD. The two disorders sometimes co-occur in the same person, a condition given the designation double depression - people with double depression are moderately depressed on a chronic basis (meeting symptom criteria for persistent depressive disorder) but undergo increased problems from time to time, during which they also meet criteria for a major depressive episode. It can last for 20 years or more and it often begins during adolescence.
Persistent depressive disorder
repeated experience of hypomanic symptoms for a period of at least 2 years (1 year for adolescents and children). It is a less serious version of full-blown bipolar disorder. In the hypomanic phase, the person may become especially creative and productive because of increased physical and mental energy. In the depressed phase, a person’s symptoms are very similar to what is seen in persistent depressive disorder. Individuals with are at greatly increased risk of later developing full-blown bipolar I or II disorder.
Cyclothymic disorder
Bipolar disorder
Bipolar I Disorder is distinguished from MDD by the presence of mania. If a person shows only manic symptoms, it is assumed that a bipolar disorder exists and that a depressive episode will eventually occur. Bipolar II Disorder is characterised not by full-blown manic (or mixed) episodes but by clear-cut hypomanic episodes as well as major depressive episodes. Bipolar II disorder evolves into bipolar I disorder in only in a small percentage of cases, suggesting that they are distinct forms of the disorder. Bipolar disorder occurs equally in males and females. The recurrences can be seasonal in nature, in
which case bipolar disorder with a seasonal pattern is diagnosed.
Manic and hypomanic episodes tends to be shorter than depressive episodes. Relative to people with a unipolar depressive episode, people with a bipolar depressive episode tend to show more mood lability, more psychotic features, more psychomotor retardation, and more substance abuse. Major depressive episodes in people with bipolar disorder are more severe than those seen in unipolar disorder, and they also cause more impairment. Some antidepressant drugs used to treat what is thought to be unipolar depression may actually precipitate manic episodes in patients who actually have as-yet-undetected bipolar disorder. Experiencing at least four episodes (either manic or depressive) every year is known as rapid cycling. The probabilities of “full recovery” from bipolar disorder are discouraging, and patients with bipolar disorder spend about 20 percent of their lives in episodes.
Somatic symptoms and dissociative disorders
Somatic symptom disorder
Illness anxiety disorder
Conversion disorder
-factitious disorder
-depersonalization/derealization disorder
-dissociative amnesia
-dissociative identity disorder
this new diagnosis includes several disorders that were previously considered to be separate diagnoses in DSM-IV. The old disorders of (1) hypochondriasis, (2) somatization disorder, and (3) pain disorder have all now disappeared. The diagnosis of somatic symptom disorder contains no assumptions about cause. For the diagnosis of disorder to be made, individuals must be experiencing chronic that are distressing to them. They must also be experiencing dysfunctional thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors.
Although several different models of this disorder exist, their core features tend to be quite similar. First, there is a focus o attention on the body. In other words, the person is hypervigilant and has an increased awareness of bodily changes. Second, the person tends to see bodily sensations as ss meaning that physical sensations are attributed to illness. Third, the person tends to worry excessively about what the symptoms mean and has catastrophizing cognitions. Fourth, because of this worry, the person is very distressed and seeks medical attention for his or her perceived physical problems. Thus, s disorder can be viewed as disorder of both perception and cognition. These individuals have an attentional bias for illness-related information - top-down processes, rather than bottom-up processes, seem to account for the problems that they have.
Negative affect is regarded as a risk factor for develop- ing. However, this is true only in the presence of absorbtion, the tendency to become absorbed in one’s experiences, and alexithymia, difficulties in identifying one’s feelings.
Patients with are more likely to be female and to have high levels of comorbid depression and anxiety.
Ss may be maintained to some degree by secondary reinforcements - when we are sick we get special comforts and attention, as well as being excused from responsibilities. Having said this, it is important to keep in mind that people with disorders are not malingering - consciously faking symptoms. These symptoms may be caused by brain processes that occur below the radar of the person’s conscious awareness
Somatic symptom disorder
in this newly identified disorder, people have high anxiety about having or developing a serious illness. This anxiety is distressing and/or disruptive, but there are very few (or very mild) somatic symptoms.
Illness anxiety disorder
historically, this disorder was one of several disorders that were grouped together under the term hysteria. It is characterized by the presence of neurological symptoms in the absence of a neurological diagnosis. In other words, the patient has symptoms or deficits affecting the senses or motor behavior that strongly suggest a medical or neurological condition. However, the pattern of symptoms or deficits is not consistent with any neurological disease or medical problem. A few typical examples include partial paralysis, blindness, deafness, and episodes of limb shaking accompanied by impairment or loss of consciousness that resemble seizures. Psychological factors are often judged to play an important role because symptoms usually either start or are exacerbated by preceding emotional or interpersonal conflicts or stressors.
It is useful to think in terms of categories of symptoms: (1) sensory, (2) motor, (3) seizures. The sensory symptoms or deficits are most often in the visual system, in the auditory system, or in the sensitivity to feeling. In the anesthesias, the person loses her or his sense of feeling in a part of the body. One of the most common is glove anesthesia, in which the person cannot feel anything on the hand in the area where gloves are worn. With conversion blindness, the person reports that he or she cannot see and yet can often navigate about a room without bumping into furniture or other objects. With conversion deafness, the person reports not being able to hear and yet orients appropriately upon “hearing” his or her own name. Motor symptoms include conversion paralysis, which is usually confined to a single limb and the loss of function is usually selective for certain functions. The most common speech-related conversion disturbance is aphonia, in which a person is able to talk only in a whisper. Another common motor symptom, called globus, involves the sensation of a lump in the throat.
Conversion disorder
in the person intentionally produces psychological or physical symptoms. The person’s goal is to obtain and maintain the benefits that playing the “sick role”. The key difference between and malingering is that , in disorder, the person receives no tangible external rewards. In contrast, the person who is malingering is intentionally producing or grossly exaggerating his or her physical symptoms and is motivated by external incentives such as avoiding work or military service or evading criminal prosecution. The disorder is also thought to be more common in women than it is in men.
A dangerous variant of f is fdisorder imposed on another. Here, the person seeking medical help has intentionally produced a medical or psychiatric illness in another person, usually a child. The perpetrators (who often have extensive medical knowledge) tend to be highly resistant to admitting the truth about what they are doing.
Factitious disorder
the person intentionally produces psychological or physical symptoms. The person’s goal is to obtain and maintain the benefits that playing the “sick role”. The key difference between ….and malingering is that , in …….the person receives no tangible external rewards. In contrast, the person who is malingering is intentionally producing or grossly exaggerating his or her physical symptoms and is motivated by external incentives such as avoiding work or military service or evading criminal prosecution. The disorder is also thought to be more common in women than it is in men.
A dangerous variant of …..is ……imposed on another. Here, the person seeking medical help has intentionally produced a medical or psychiatric illness in another person, usually a child. The perpetrators (who often have extensive medical knowledge) tend to be highly resistant to admitting the truth about what they are doing.
Factitious disorder
two of the more common kinds of dissociative symptoms In one’s sense of the reality of the outside world is temporarily lost, and in one’s sense of one’s own self and one’s own reality is temporarily lost. In this disorder, people have persistent or recurrent experiences of feeling detached from their own bodies and mental processes. They may even feel they are, for a time, floating above their physical bodies. During periods of unlike during psychotic states, reality testing remains intact. Emotional experiences are attenuated or reduced during —both at the subjective level and at the level of neural and autonomic activity that normally accompanies emotional responses to threatening or unpleasant emotional stimuli. Memory fragmentation is marked by difficulties forming an accurate or coherent narrative sequence of events, which is consistent with earlier research suggesting that time distortion is a key element of the dp experience. To qualify for a diagnosis, episodes of depersonalization or derealization must be persistent or recurrent. Comorbid conditions can include mood or anxiety disorders. Avoidant, border- line, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders are also elevated in experiences.
Des-personalization or desrealization disorder
Dissociative amnesia
retrograde amnesia is the partial or total inability to recall or identify previously acquired information or past experiences; by contrast, anterograde amnesia is the partial or total inability to retain new information. On the other hand, dissociative amnesia is usually limited to a failure to recall previously stored personal information (retrograde amnesia) when that failure cannot be accounted for by ordinary forgetting - the gaps in memory most often occur following intolerably stressful circumstances. Amnesic episodes usually last between a few days and a few years. In typical dissociative amnesic reactions, individuals cannot remember certain aspects of their personal life history or important facts about their identity. The only type of memory that is affected is episodic (pertaining to events experienced) or autobiographical memory (pertaining to personal events experienced). The other recognized forms of memory—semantic, procedural, and short-term storage - seem usually to remain intact.
In rare cases a person may retreat still further from real-life problems by going into an amnesic state called a dissociative fugue, which is a defense by actual flight— a person is not only amnesic for some or all aspects of his or her past but also departs from home surroundings. Days, weeks, or sometimes even years later, such people may suddenly emerge from the fugue state and find themselves in a strange place, working in a new occupation, with no idea how they got there. As the fugue state remits, their initial amnesia remits—but a new, apparently complete amnesia for their fugue period occurs.
formerly known as multiple personality disorder. In DSM-5 it is required that there be a disruption of identity characterized by two or more distinct personality states as well as recurrent episodes of amnesia. Furthermore, DID can now be diagnosed without other people witnessing the different personalities. A trance is said to occur when someone experiences a temporary marked alteration in state of consciousness or identity. It is usually associated with either a narrowing of awareness of the immediate surroundings, or stereotyped behaviors or movements that are experienced as beyond one’s control. A possession trance is similar except that the alteration of consciousness or identity is replaced by a new identity that is attributed to the influence of a spirit, deity, or other power. In both cases amnesia is typically present for the trance state. In DSM-5, the diagnostic criteria for DID have been modified to include pathological possession. Pathological possession is a common form of DID in Africa, Asia, and many other non- Western cultures.
Each identity may appear to have a different personal history, self-image, and name, although there may be some identities that are only partially distinct and independent from other identities. The one identity that is most frequently encountered and carries the person’s real name is the host identity. The alter identities may differ in striking ways involving gender, age, handedness, handwriting, sexual orientation, prescription for eyeglasses, predominant affect, foreign languages spoken, and general knowledge. Needs and behaviors inhibited in the primary or host identity are usually liberally displayed by one or more alter identities. Alters are not in any meaningful sense personalities but rather reflect a failure to integrate various aspects of a person’s identity, consciousness, and memory.
When switches occur in people with DID, it is often easy to observe the gaps in memories for things that have happened. Additional symptoms of DID include depression, self-injurious behavior, frequent suicidal ideation and attempts, erratic behavior, headaches, hallucinations, posttraumatic symptoms, and other amnesic and fugue symptoms.
Among patients with diagnoses of DID, the average number of comorbid diagnoses is five, with PTSD being the most common. DID usually starts in childhood, although most patients are in their teens, 20s, or 30s at the time of diagnosis. Approximately three to nine times more females than males are diagnosed as having the disorder.
Dissociative identity disorder
Dissociative disorder
-depersonalization, dissociative amnesia and dissociative identity disorder
Eating disorders and obesity
-anorexia nervosa
-bulimia nervosa
-binge-eating
is a pursuit of thinness that is relentless and that involves behaviors that result in a significantly low body weight. In DSM-5 amenorrhea (cessation of menstruation) is no longer required for a person to be given the diagnosis. Many patients with anorexia nervosa deny having any problem. Efforts are often made to conceal their thinness.
There are two types of anorexia nervosa: the restricting type and the binge-eating/purging type. In the restricting type, every effort is made to limit the quantity of food consumed. Caloric intake is tightly controlled. Those with the restricting type of anorexia nervosa are often greatly admired by others with eating disorders. Patients with the binge- eating/purging type of anorexia nervosa either binge, purge, or binge and purge. A binge involves an out-of-control consumption of an amount of food that is far greater than what most people would eat in the same amount of time and under the same circumstances. These binges may be followed by efforts to purge the food they have eaten. Methods of purging commonly include self-induced vomiting or misuse of laxatives, diuretics, and enemas.
Anorexia nervosa
characterized by uncontrollable binge eating and efforts to prevent resulting weight gain by using inappropriate behaviors such as self-induced vomiting and excessive exercise. The DSM-5 criteria hold that for the disorder to be diagnosed binge eating and purging have to occur on average once a week over a 3-month period. The clinical picture of the binge-eating/purging type of anorexia nervosa has much in common with bulimia nervosa. The difference is weight - by definition, the person with anorexia nervosa is severely underweight. This is not true of the person with bulimia nervosa. Consequently, if the person who binges or purges also meets criteria for anorexia nervosa, the diagnosis is anorexia nervosa (binge-eating/purging type) and not bulimia nervosa. Bulimia begins with restricted eating motivated by the desire to be slender. During these early stages, the person diets and eats low-calorie foods. Over time, however, the early resolve to restrict gradually erodes, and the person starts to eat “forbidden foods”. After the binge, the person begins to vomit, fast, exercise excessively, or abuse laxatives. Those with bulimia nervosa are often preoccupied with shame, guilt, and self-deprecation.
Bulimia nervosa
although BED has some clinical features in common with bulimia nervosa, there is an important difference. After a binge the person with BED does not engage in any form of inappropriate “compensatory” behavior such as purging, using laxatives, or even exercising to limit weight gain. There is also much less dietary restraint in BED than is typical of either bulimia nervosa or anorexia nervosa. Binge eating disorder is associated with being overweight or even obese, but weight is not a factor involved in making the diagnosis. Individuals with binge-eating disorder are more likely to have overvalued ideas about the importance of weight and shape than patients who are overweight or obese and who do not have BED.
Binge eating
Cluster A personality disorder
it includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders. People with these disorders often seem odd or eccentric, with unusual behavior ranging from distrust and suspiciousness to social detachment.
Cluster b personality disorders
it includes histrionic, narcissistic, antisocial, and borderline personality disorders. Individuals with these disorders share a tendency to be dramatic, emotional, and erratic.
Cluster C personality disorders
it includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. In contrast to the other two clusters, people with these disorders often show anxiety and fearfulness.
are suspicious and distrustful of others, often reading hidden meanings into ordinary remarks. They tend to see themselves as blameless, instead blaming others for their own mistakes and failures. Equal numbers of men and women are affected by it. They are not usually psychotic - during periods of high stress, however, they may experience transient psychotic symptoms that last from a few minutes to a few hours.
There is evidence of modest genetic liability to disorder itself - this may occur through the heritability of high levels of antagonism (low agreeableness) and neuroticism (angry-hostility). Psychosocial causal factors include parental neglect or abuse, although this might be a non-specific factor.
Paranoid personality disorder
included in Cluster A. Individuals with sdisorder have difficulties forming social relationships and usually lack much interest in doing so. Such people are unable to express their feelings and are seen by others as cold and distant. They often lack social skills and can be classified as loners or introverts. They tend not to take pleasure in many activities, including sexual activity. They are not very emotionally reactive and show a generally apathetic mood. The disorder is more common in males than in females.
They show extremely high levels of detachment (high introversion) and low levels of openness to feelings. Straits have been shown to have fairly high heritability, and there is also some link between s and autism spectrum disorders.
Schizoid personality disorder
included in Cluster A. Individuals with disorder are also excessively introverted and have pervasive social and interpersonal deficits. But in addition they have cognitive and perceptual distortions, as well as oddities and eccentricities in their communication and behavior. Although contact with reality is usually maintained, highly personalized and superstitious thinking is characteristic of people with personality, and under extreme stress they may experience transient psychotic symptoms. They often believe that they have magical powers and may engage in magical rituals, and cognitive distortions may include ideas of reference (the belief that conversations or gestures of others have special meaning or personal significance), odd speech, and paranoid beliefs.
Many researchers conceptualize personality disorder as an attenuated form of schizophrenia. Core symptoms of schizotypy form the basis of the only proposed trait that does not map neatly onto the five factors of normal personality, psychoticism. More males are affected than females. The disorder has moderate heritability.
Schizotypal personality disorder
