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Developmental Psychology > Developmental Psychology > Flashcards

Developmental Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

What is Active Learning?

A

Learning by doing

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2
Q

What is Passive Learning?

A

Learning by observation or direct instruction

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3
Q

Who invented “empiricism”?

A

Locke

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4
Q

What is “empiricism”?

A
  • Children are born as a clean slate (tabula rasa)
  • Individual is not pre-determined
  • Societal influences effect human development
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5
Q

Who invented “nativism”?

A

Rousseau

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6
Q

What is “nativism”?

A
  • Natural predisposition shapes a child
  • Believes education should be kept to a minimum
  • Children should make their own developments
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7
Q

Give an example of someone who was effected by a critical period

A

Genie (1957)

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8
Q

Who invented “constructivism”?

A

Piaget

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9
Q

What is “constructivism”?

A
  • Children are not born with innate capabilities
  • They construct knowledge using schemas
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10
Q

Who invented the “Sociocultural Theory”?

A

Vygotsky

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11
Q

What is “sociocultural theory”?

A
  • Language is crucial to development
  • “More Knowledgeable Others”
  • Zone of proximal development
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12
Q

Who created the “preferential looking paradigm”?

A

Fantz (1961)

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13
Q

What is the “preferential looking paradigm”?

A
  • “looking chamber”, through a peephole in the ceiling experimenters could see tiny images of the objects mirrored in the infant’s eyes
  • Time infant spends looking at each object - - Infants preferred the real face, looked a but less at the scrambled face and ignored the control pattern
  • Eye-tracking
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14
Q

What is the “habituation paradigm”?

A
  • Make a child bored of one stimulus
  • Pair it with a novel stimulus
  • If the infant look more at the new stimulus, they have discriminated the two
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15
Q

What is “eye-tracking”?

A
  • Uses infra-red to measure where a participant is looking
  • Allows precise measurement of looking time and fixation
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16
Q

What is “overreliance of looking times”?

A
  • Suggests you can’t always rely on looking times
  • Is an infant still focussing or is it a blank stare?
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17
Q

What do fNIRS measure?”

A

Changes in cerebral blood flow and oxygenation in the brain

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18
Q

What do EEG’s measure?

A

Electrical impulses that are generated by the neurons in the brain

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19
Q

What is a “teratogen”?

A

Any environmental agent that may interfere with the development of the foetus (alcohol, drugs, malnutrition etc.)

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20
Q

What is maternal malnutrition related to in the foetus?

A

Higher risk of schizophrenia, antisocial personality disorder or a mood disorder

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21
Q

What is maternal depression associated with?

A

Higher chance of prematurity and low birth weight

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22
Q

What is maternal stress associated with?

A

Natural events with higher objective stress led to lower kids’ IQ at age 5

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23
Q

What is the “high amplitude dummy sucking paradigm?”

A

Infants can learn to respond to an auditory stimulus through dummy sucking, if they want an auditory stimulus to stop, they suck faster and it stops - conditioning (Skinner)

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24
Q

What is the “maturation viewpoint”?

A
  • Biological change enables behavioural change
  • Similar development across cultures
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25
Q

What is the “stage view of development”?

A
  • Orderly, builds skill upon skill
  • Requires proficiency in fundamental skills
  • How does this explain regression in development tho?
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26
Q

What is “process view”?

A
  • Movement is not hardwired
  • Product of cooperation between bodily systems
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27
Q

What is the “dynamic systems theory (DST)”?

A
  • Maturation systems are foundation
  • New skills are active reorganisations of existing skills
  • Interaction between individual, environment, experience, and maturational systems resulting in affordance or constraints
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28
Q

DST: What is a “behavioural attractor”?

A

An action performed in a given way in a given situation

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29
Q

What are the 4E’s of motor development?

A

Embodied: forces act on the body, forced generated by the body
Enabling: movement enables new developments
Enculturated: can be hindered or facilitated by socio-cultural practices
Embedded: perceived affordances of the environment

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30
Q

What is “perceptual narrowing”?

A

A developmental process where the brain uses environmental experiences to shape perceptual abilities

31
Q

What is a “language-general capacity”?

A

Can discriminate differences between any 2 speech sounds from any of the world’s languages, regardless of whether it’s a language they are learning or not - this is universal
- Become specialist in their own language by 12 months

32
Q

Stages of Piaget’s Object Permanence:

A

< 1 month: only look at objects in front of them
1-4 months: dropped objects not looked for
4 months: visually searching for fallen object, search for partially visible object, not an entirely hidden one.
8-12 months: search for entirely concealed objects.
12-18 months: permanence of invisible objects; visual tracking of moving objects, search for disappeared object.
18-24 months: full object permanence acquired; understands object as existing independent of sensory-motor action

33
Q

What is the A not B error (Piaget)?

A
  • Requires an infant to search for a hidden object:
  • < 8 month olds won’t search for object at all
  • Between 9-12 months, search but in wrong location (A)
34
Q

What does the Violation of Expectation (VoE) paradigm study?

A

Object permanence in infants younger than 9 months
- Infants will look longer at an impossible event

35
Q

Give two explanations for the A not B error:

A
  • Lack of inhibition/response perseveration (
  • Memory deficiency (infants might struggle to remember where the object is)
36
Q

What is “infantile amnesia”?

A

Don’t remember anything from infant times:
- Brain development: can’t form memories due to hippocampus not fully mature until
- 3-4 years; frontal lobe growth changes that allow for explicit or conscious memories
- Linguistic development: can’t form memories/encode events without language
- Emotional development: can’t form memories without emotion schemes

37
Q

Define infantile Episodic Memories:

A
  • <6 mo: memories specific to situation in which the initial event occurs - need to be in the same situation and same emotional state as during the original experience
  • 12-18 mo: can recall events for long periods - when tested using familiar objects and events, allowed multiple exposures, when they can enact the sequence in action rather than in words, and with specific reminders
38
Q

Define infantile Conceptual Memories:

A
  • > 24 mo: rooted in verbal descriptions, dependent on semantic knowledge
  • Very young children may not structure their experience in memorable ways, particularly if they lack understanding of what is happening (e.g., birth, death)
  • Formation of this type of memory is dependent on adults’ scaffolding - rehearsing describing one’s experience, recalling events, recounting to someone else in a verbal narrative
39
Q

What is the “egocentric stage” (Piaget)?

A

Language not aimed at communication of thought; self-directed speech as a monologue, which disappears with development

40
Q

What is the “socialised stage” (Piaget)?

A

Language clearly directed towards someone else; exchange of thoughts - dialogues

41
Q

What are Vygotsky’s views on early communication?

A
  • Language is inherently communicative
  • Self-directed and social language are initially merged, then divide into egocentric and communicative language; both remain present throughout life
  • Internalised language also remains as private monologue – shortened, fragmentary and unintelligible, evolutionary product of egocentric language
42
Q

What is “gestural communication”?

A

Body language and hand gestures - pick me up, wave etc.

43
Q

What are the 5 “communicative intentions”?

A

Socio-emotional – non-informational needs

Imperative – instrumental, or requestive («Get me that!»)

Declarative – sharing attention or interest («Look at that!»)

Information-seeking – e.g., from more knowledgeable others

Informative – providing information to less knowledgeable others

44
Q

Why do infants smile?

A
  • Initially, just intrinsic - related to contentment
  • 6-10 weeks, need to form connection with caregivers
  • 2-3 months: when experiencing a contingency between action and effect
45
Q

Why do infants feel anger?

A
  • Initially, to display hunger
  • Anger expressions increase as they’re able to perform intentional behaviour
46
Q

Why do infants feel joy/surprise?

A

Recognise they have control over their surroundings and therefore the outcomes

47
Q

Why do infants feel fear?

A
  • Fear rises from 6 months onwards
  • Infants develop balance between approach (curiosity etc.) and avoidance (fear)
48
Q

Provide evidence for innate imitation:

A

Meltzoff & Moore (1977 & 1989) - infants showed imitation as young as 42 minutes old

49
Q

Provide evidence against immitation:

A

Some say infants move their facial muscles when they’re aroused (flashing lights, someone else making faces at them).
We can’t rely 100% on observation because we can’t ask the baby why it’s doing that

50
Q

Why do infants prefer faces?

A
  • It’s an innate reflex to orient to face-like stimuli (CONSPEC)
  • As you grow, you build a detailed representation of faces because of how many you see (CONLERN)
51
Q

How do infants differentiate facial expressions?

A

They can differentiate from 6 months onwards, but they learn to tell what the expressions mean from 3-months to 7-months.

52
Q

Describe Repacholi & Gopnik’s (1997) study into understanding emotions:

A
  • Experimenter exhibits disgust towards one of the foods they are presented with
  • Infants must then offer a food to the experimenter.
  • 14-months-olds provide the food they most enjoy, while the 18-month-olds provide the food the experimenter favours
53
Q

Criticise Piaget’s theory:

A
  • No clear evidence for stages
  • Observations were not small-scale enough, the picture was too sweeping
  • The way of testing children involved too many complex responses
  • Explanation of the mechanisms of cognitive change was insufficient
  • Focused on children learning in isolation, not from others
54
Q

What do “core-knowledge theorists” believe?

A

Children are born with specialised learning abilities (modules) that allow them to acquire information quickly and efficiently

55
Q

What are “rich interpretations”?

A

Assumes that infants go through a complex process of reasoning and therefore deliberately ‘choose’ where to look

56
Q

What are “lean interpretations”?

A

Looking behaviour can be explained by low-level, simple perceptual processes

57
Q

What is “neuroconstructivism”?

A

A theory that suggests that the brain constructs cognition through a combination of genetic and environmental factors

58
Q

What is “experience-dependent neural development” (Encellment)?

A

The neural system in a brain region wires itself up in response to experience with an environment

59
Q

What is “enbrainment”?

A

Different parts of the brain interact during development and in this way shape each other’s structure and function

60
Q

What is “embodiment”?

A

Increased ability to manipulate and move in the environment

61
Q

What is “ensocialment”?

A

The environment constrains the range of possible experiences

62
Q

What are “epigenetics”?

A

Genes are not just a blueprint for development - they can be switched on and off (expressed) through environmental experience

63
Q

What are the four ways that children explore?

A
  • Visual: preferential looking, novelty preference, gaze following, sustained attention
  • Manual/haptic: touching, grasping, holding, mouthing etc.
  • Spatial/locomotor: moving towards interesting information
  • Social-communicative: social referencing, pointing, holdouts, vocalisations, questions
64
Q

What are the two means to exploration?

A

Physical: object knowledge, causal relation, statistical learning
Social: others’ knowledge, intentionality, context of learning

65
Q

What are the 4 approaches to curiosity?

A

Drive - aligned with biological drives
Incongruency - seeking information to resolve uncertainty or novelty
Information Gap - seeking information to close a gap in knowledge
Learning Progress - learning in itself in intrinsically rewarding

66
Q

What is “play”?

A

A more complex form of engaging with the world and is vital for social, cognitive and affective development

67
Q

What are the “social learning strategies”?

A
  • Observation - Rapid nonverbal learning about causality without direct experience
  • Imitation - faithfully copying others’ actions
  • Overimitation - faithfully copying others’ unnecessary actions
  • Information-seeking - asking questions to gain new knowledge
  • Teaching - self-explanatory my guy
68
Q

What is “selectivity in social learning”?

A
  • Sensitivity to direct eye contact, child-directed speech
  • Sensitivity to others’ cues of reliability
  • Sensitivity to informants’ social characteristics
69
Q

What is the “discrete emotions theory”?

A

Says that emotions are innate and are discrete from one another from very early in life. Each emotion is packaged with a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions

70
Q

What is the “functionalist approach”?

A

Emphasizes the role of the environment in emotional development. Maintains that emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on social environment.
- Proposes that the basic function of emotions is to promote action towards achieving a goal

71
Q

When do “self-conscious emotions” develop?

A

Emerge during the second year of life (guilt, shame embarrassment and pride)

72
Q

What are the individual differences in experiencing emotions?

A

Some children feel bad, they’ll try to repair the doll and will tell the adult quickly.
Other children avoid the guilt and delay telling the adult

73
Q

How does the role of parents influence children?

A

Influences their sense of security and how they feel about themselves and other people
- Children and environment influence each other, parents’ emotions influence the childs’

Developmental Psychology (1 decks)

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