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Developmental Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Lifespan Development

A

Refers to the age-related changes that occur from conception until the time of death
- includes various stages of development: infancy, childhood, adolescence etc
- includes various areas of development: cognitive, physical, social, emotional
- changes must be relatively permanent to be considered developmental

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2
Q

Maturation

A

Refers to the physical growth of the body and all its physical components
A developmental process which is already preprogrammed and orderly sequence of development of the nervous system and bodily structures
- controlled by genes
- physical readiness to experience developmental changes eg. walking
- changes occur automatically as a result of hormones and biological growth

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3
Q

Developmental Norms

A

Standards by which the progress of a child’s development can be measured, such as the average age at which most children learn to walk

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4
Q

List the Areas of Development

A

Physical (motor)
Cognitive (perceptual)
Emotional
Social

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5
Q

Physical Development

A

Changes to the body and its various systems
Motor development = physical skills development

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6
Q

Cognitive Development

A

How we think and learn
Perceptual Development = how we interpret the environment around us

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7
Q

Emotional Development

A

How we experience, express and intepret feelings

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8
Q

Social Development

A

How we interact with others

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9
Q

List the stages and ages of lifespan development

A

Infancy: 0-2 years
Childhood: 2-10 years
Adolescence: 10-20 years
Early Adulthood: 20-40 years
Middle Age: 40-65 years
Old Age: 65+ years

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10
Q

Continuous Development

A

Involves gradual ongoing changes throughout life
- development seems to be sequential: abilities build oh themselves

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11
Q

Discontinuous Development

A

Involves specific stages with bursts of rapid development within those stages

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12
Q

Physical Development in Infancy

A

Fine motor skills ( grasping)
Reflexes

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13
Q

Physical Development in Childhood

A

Fundamental, fine and gross motor skills eg. hopping, jumping
Teething

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14
Q

Physical Development in Adolescence

A

Puberty - major physical changes eg. sex organs, hormones

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15
Q

Physical Development in Early Adulthood

A

Start family

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16
Q

Physical Development in Middle Age

A

Decrease in muscle tone
Decrease in balance

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17
Q

Physical Development in Old Age

A

Decreased strength and health
New hobbies

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18
Q

Psychological Development in Infancy

A

Language development
Rapid development of perceptual abilities

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19
Q

Psychological Development in Childhood

A

Intellectual development

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20
Q

Psychological Development in Adolescence

A

Seeking independence from parents
More logical and abstract thinking

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21
Q

Psychological Development in Early Adulthood

A

Financial independence
Career

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22
Q

Psychological Development in Middle Age

A

Increased responsibility

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23
Q

Psychological Development in Old Age

A

Decreased work
Changes of self perceptions

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24
Q

Social Development in Infancy

A

Social skills

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25
Q

Social Development in Childhood

A

Independence from adults
Play and social development

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26
Q

Social Development in Adolescence

A

Strengthening peer groups
Personality changes

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27
Q

Social Development in Early Adulthood

A

Establishing personal relationships and intimate relationships
Career

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28
Q

Social Development in Middle Age

A

Expand social and personal involvements
Supporting children in their development

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29
Q

Social Development in Old Age

A

Decreased work
Death of friends and family

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30
Q

Emotional Development in Infancy

A

Emotional attachment between infant and primary caregiver

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31
Q

Emotional Development in Childhood

A

Moral development

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32
Q

Emotional Development in Adolescence

A

Developing identity

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33
Q

Emotional Development in Early Adulthood

A

Development of intimate relationships
Select life partners

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34
Q

Emotional Development in Middle Age

A

Expand social and personal involvements
Supporting children in their development

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35
Q

Emotional Development in Old Age

A

Death of friends and family
New roles in society

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36
Q

Principle of Readiness

A

States that unless the necessary physical maturation has occured, no amount of practice will produce a particular mental process or behaviour
- earlier development lays the foundation for the next stage
eg. cannot run until you learn to walk

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37
Q

Epigenetics

A

The study of how environment factors affect how our genes are expressed
- rats passed learning on through epigenetic tags - how DNA code was read and used to produce protein

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38
Q

Monozygotic Twins

A

Formed when a single fertilized egg (zygote) spontaneously splits into two and develops into two foetuses - share 100% of their genes

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39
Q

Dizygotic Twins

A

Develop when two eggs are released at the same time and fertilized by two different sperm - share 50% of the same genes

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40
Q

Criticism of Twin Studies

A

Parents tend to treat identical twins more similarly than non-identical twins

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41
Q

Adoption Studies

A

Involve research using people who have been adopted, as well as their adoptive and biological parents, as participants
- making comparisons between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents, researchers can draw conclusions about the influence of heredity and environment

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42
Q

Nature VS Nurture Debate

A

Refers to the question of whether our development is due to mainly genetics (heredity) or the environment

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43
Q

Attachment

A

Refers to the emotional bond that forms between an infant and caregiver

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44
Q

Attachment Theory

A

Proposed by John Bowlby to describe how infants relate emotionally to their caregivers
- proposes that attachment is a mammalian survival mechanism that keeps offsprings close to caregivers

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45
Q

List the characteristics of attachment

A
  • Proximity Maintenance
  • Safe Haven
  • Secure Base
  • Seperation Distress
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46
Q

Proximity Maintenance

A

The level of desire that an infant has to be near the caregiver

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47
Q

Safe Haven

A

The ability of the infant to return to the caregiver when stressed

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48
Q

Secure Base

A

The attachment figure becomes the base from which to explore

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49
Q

Seperation Distress

A

Level of anxiety felt by infant when caregiver leaves

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50
Q

The Strange Situation

A
  • by Mary Ainsworth typically on infants 9-18months old
  • infant and caregiver enter unfamiliar room and a stranger comes in and behaviour is observed
  • reveals that infants show attachment to caregivers through behaviours that promote closeness or contact between themselves and the caregiver
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51
Q

Stranger Anxiety

A

Refers to an infants cautiousness towards and around unfamiliar people

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52
Q

Seperation Anxiety

A

Refers to signs of distress displayed by an infant when not in the presence of their main caregiver

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53
Q

Types of Attachment

A
  • Secure Attachment (65% of infants)
  • Insecure Avoid Attachment (20% of infants)
  • Insecure Resistant Attachment (12% of infants)
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54
Q

Secure Attachment

A
  • uses caregiver as base for exploration
  • shows signs of seperation anxiety but is easily soothed by caregiver when reunited
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55
Q

Insecure Avoidant Attachment

A
  • the infant doesnt seek closeness with the caregiver
  • when seperated, the infants doesn’t show signs of seperation anxiety
  • the infant ignores the caregiver upon reunion
  • research suggests the attachment style may be the result of neglect/ abuse
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56
Q

Insecure Resistant Attachment

A
  • the infant appears anxious, even in the presence of the caregiver
  • extreme distress when the caregiver leaves
  • initially seek comfort from the caregiver upon reunion but is difficult to soothe
  • thought to be the result of caregivers who are frequently unresponsive to the infants needs
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57
Q

Disorganised Attachment

A
  • infant’s behaviour is inconsistent with the patterns displayed in secure and insecure attachment and seemingly contradictory
    eg. responding to reunion w fearful behaviours such as rocking or ear-pulling, seeking comfort from caregiver upon reunion. but moving very slowly toward them
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58
Q

Possible Causes and Outcomes of Disorganised Attachment

A

Causes: maltreatment, hostile caregiving, post-natal depression, caregiver experiencing trauma or loss
some infants with disorganised attachment = have seemingly normal background
Outcomes: has been linked to mental health issues in later life

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59
Q

Secure Attachment outcomes

A
  • good self-esteem
  • trusting relationships with friends and romantic partners
  • seek out social support
  • comfortable expressing feelings
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60
Q

Insecure Attachment outcomes

A
  • anxiety
  • difficulty forming and maintaining close relationships with others
  • difficulty expressing emotions
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61
Q

List the factors influencing attachment

A

Genetics
Temperament
Early life experiences

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62
Q

Genetics on attachment

A

Bowlby suggested that infants are genetically pre-programmed to display attachment signals such as crying, clinging, smiling and gazing at the caregiver
- these develop in a fixed, age-related sequence (through maturation)

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63
Q

Temperament

A

An individual’s characteristic way of reacting to people, objects and events

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64
Q

Temperament on attachment

A

Temperament differences between infants are evident from birth and persist through childhood and adulthood
- have a genetic basis

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65
Q

List the type of temperaments

A

Easy
Difficult
Slow to warm up

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66
Q

Easy temperament

A

Usually content and happy, adaptable to new experiences, regular feeding and sleeping habits, tolerant of frustration and discomfort

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67
Q

Difficult temperament

A

Often irritable, irregular sleep and eating habits, negative reactions to disruptions to their routines, throw tantrums when frustrated/ uncomfortable

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68
Q

Slow to warm up temperament

A

Somewhat moody, moderately regular sleeping and eating habits, cautious in new situations

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69
Q

List the phases of Early Life Experiences

A

Sensitivity and responsiveness of the caregiver
Demographic factors

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70
Q

Sensitivity and responsiveness of the caregiver

A

Infants are more likely to form secure attachments to caregivers who are able to respond quickly and appropriately to signs of their discomfort

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71
Q

Demographic Factors

A

Family income, family size, parental age and educational level, stability of parents relationship, cultural background etc

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72
Q

Outcomes of Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments

A
  • regardless of whether the monkey was fed by wire surrogate or cloth surrogate mother, they still spent more hours a day on the cloth surrogate mother
  • b/c cloth mother provided monkeys with a sense of comfort as they could cuddle them and experience more enjoyable physical contact, and a sense of comfort and safety
  • these results suggest that enjoyable physical contact between the monkeys and their mothers contributed to the development of bonds between them
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73
Q

Schema

A

A mental idea of what something is and how to act on it
- according to Piaget, schemata are the basic building blocks of intelligent behaviour

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74
Q

Action Schemata

A

Are the inborn survival reflexes, like sucking and grasping - this enables infants to interact with the world from birth
- our schemata becomes more sophisticated as we mature and our environment expands

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75
Q

How are Schemata produced?

A

Through Adaptation - the process by which we take in, organise and use new information (Requires assimilation and accommodation)

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76
Q

Assimilation

A

When new information is fit into existing schema

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77
Q

Accommodation

A

When schemata are altered to let in new information

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78
Q

List Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

A
  1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)
  2. Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years)
  3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)
  4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)
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79
Q

Key Characteristics of Sensorimotor Stage

A

Characterised by infants learning about their surroundings through their senses and motor interactions with their environment

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80
Q

Key Characteristics of the Pre-Operational Stage

A

Characterised by Egocentrism (tendency to perceive world solely from ones own point of view), Animism (belief that everything that exists has some kind of consciousness) and Centration (inability to focus on more than one feature of an object at a time - unable to grasp conservation of mass, no and volume)

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81
Q

Key Characteristics of the Concrete Operational Stage

A
  • Able to perform mental operations - involves being able to accurately imagine the consequences of an action without it needing to happen
  • Mental operations are limited to concrete objects and events - things that can be experienced with the senses
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82
Q

Key Characteristics of the Formal Operational Stage

A
  • Children achieve abstract thinking (the ability to conduct mental operations on concepts that are not experienced through the senses)
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83
Q

Key Achievements of the Sensorimotor Stage

A
  • Sensory and motor coordination
  • Increased goal-directed behaviour (successfully completing sequences of actions with a particular purpose)
  • Acquire object permanence (understanding that object exists when it cant be seen)
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84
Q

Key Achievements of the Pre-Operational Stage

A
  • Symbolic Thinking (ability to use symbols such as words and images to represent objects that are not physically present)
  • Transformation (the understanding that something can change from one state to another)
  • Reversibility (the ability to mentally follow a sequence of events back to its starting point)
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85
Q

Key Achievements of the Concrete Operational Stage

A
  • Conservation (knowing that mass, no and volume remain the same despite changes in the appearance of an object)
  • Decentering (the ability to consider more than one characteristic of an object or problem)
  • Classification (the ability to organise objects/ events into categories based on common features that set them apart from other categories)
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86
Q

Key Achievements of the Formal Operational Stage

A
  • Deductive Reasoning (ability to draw conclusions from two pieces of info that are believed to be true)
  • Systematic Problem Solving (the ability to test solutions to problems in an orderly way)
  • Idealistic Thinking (the ability to envisage better alternatives to reality)
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87
Q

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

A
  • experimenter effect
  • biased bc own children and small sample
  • later replications show many children reach each stage earlier than he thought
  • Many children are able to understand conservation much earlier than Piaget’s participants who may have failed the conservation tests bc they were bored or asked in confusing ways
  • Infants can think in more complex ways than describe
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88
Q

Psychosocial Development (Erik Erikson)

A

Involves both psychological processes which take place within an individual and their experiences with other people
- based on extensive case studies using people from different cultures

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89
Q

Stages of Psychosocial Development

A
  • moves through 8 distinct and sequential stages
  • in each stage a specific psychosocial crisis occurs - personal conflict an individual faces in adjusting to society, causing a healthy personality and productive lifestyle
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90
Q

List the Stages of Psychosocial Development

A

Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust 0-18 months
Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt 18 months-3 years
Stage 3: Initiative vs Guild 3-5 years
Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority 5-12 years
Stage 5: Identity vs Role Confusion 12-18 years
Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation 18-25 years
Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation 25-65 years
Stage 8: Integrity vs Despair 65+ years

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91
Q

Trust vs Mistrust

A
  • infants develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, warmth and physical care - a lack of this will cause mistrust
  • trust helps infants form attachments to their parents
  • mistrust can cause insecurity, suspiciousness and an inability to relate to others
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92
Q

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

A
  • children learn to develop a sense of control over physical skills and a sense of independence
  • Autonomy = the ability to do things independently and feelings of self-control, self-competence and self-reliance
  • if caregivers are overprotective then shame and doubt will develop
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93
Q

Initiative vs Guilt

A
  • through play, children learn to make plans and carry out tasks
  • parents reinforce by giving children freedom to play, use imagination and ask questions, promoting initiative (using one’s own resourcefulness to solve problems)
  • feelings of guilt form if parents criticise severely, prevent play or discourage questions
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94
Q

Industry vs Inferiority

A
  • children have to cope with new social and academic demands and become interested in how things are made
  • any encouragement allows their sense of industry to increase and feel worthwhile
  • if a child’s work is considered messy, childish or inadequate, then the child can develop feelings of inferiority
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95
Q

Identity vs Role Confusion

A
  • adolescents have to build a steady identity based on their talents, values, relationships and culture
  • those who can successfully solve this dilemma will come out wit ha new sense of self that is inspirational and normal
  • those who don’t develop an identity will suffer from role confusion - an uncertainty about who they are and where they are going
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96
Q

Intimacy vs Isolation

A
  • after establishing a stable identity, a person is prepared to share meaningful love or deep friendship with others
  • Intimacy = the ability to care about others and share experiences with them
  • young adults who achieve this are able to experience a mature and intimate love
  • failure to establish intimacy results in a deep sense of isolation
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97
Q

Generativity vs Stagnation

A
  • primary crisis = contributing to society and helping to guide future generations
  • generativity = expressed by caring about oneself, one’s children and future generations
  • adults who do not achieve generativity may feel stagnation (self-absorption and failing to find a way to contribute)
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98
Q

Integrity vs Despair

A
  • a person must be able to look back over life with acceptance and satisfaction
  • the person who has lived richly and responsibly develops a sense of integrity - allowing the person facing ageing and death with dignity
  • if adults feel unhappy with their life path and missed opportunities, then they may suffer from despair/ regret
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99
Q

List the approaches to describing normality

A

Socio-cultural approach
Functional approach
Historical approach
Medical approach
Statistical approach
Situational approach

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100
Q

Socio-cultural approach

A

Thoughts, feelings and behaviour that are considered acceptable in a particular society
eg. wailing at a funeral is considered appropriate in some society but somes not

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101
Q

Functional Approach

A

Thoughts, feelings and behaviour are viewed as normal, so long as they dont interfere with individuals living independently
eg. being so unhappy you cant get out of bed

102
Q

Historical Approach

A

Thoughts, feelings and behaviours that are considered acceptable depends on the period in time in which the judgement is being made
eg. modern day beachwear considered indecent a long time ago

103
Q

Medical Approach

A

Thoughts, feelings and behaviours may be considered abnormal if they are shared by a large majority of people and abnormal if they only occur in a small minority of people
eg. most people will score between 85-115 on IQ test but 0.1% below 55 and above 145

104
Q

Situational Approach

A

Particular thoughts, feelings and emotions can be appropriate in some contexts and inappropriate in others
eg. tackling a stranger is fine on a football field but not on the street

105
Q

Typical Behaviour

A

Describes the usual actions of an individual

106
Q

Atypical Behaviour

A

Refers to the actions that are out of character for an individual
may be a sign of mental health issues if they are persistent, evident in different situations in everyday life and maladaptive

107
Q

Adaptive Behaviours

A

Enable individuals to adjust to their environments appropriately and effectively

108
Q

Maladaptive Behaviours

A

Interfere with the ability to adjust to the environment appropriately and effectively
- can range from relatively minor to severely dysfunctional (target of intervention by psychologists)

109
Q

Mental Health

A

State of wellbeing in which an individual realises his or her abilities, can cope with normal stresses of life, can work productively and is able to contribute to his or her community

110
Q

Mental Health Problems

A

Most often occur as a result of a life stress and are usually resolved with time or when the stressor goes away

111
Q

Mental Disorders

A

(psychological disorder or mental illness)
Involves a combination of thoughts, feelings and behaviours which impair the ability to function effectively in everyday life

112
Q

Continuum

A

Mental health and mental illness exist on a continuum and there is no clear boundary between the two
Mental health problems exist on the spectrum between mental health and mental disorder - some can be restored with self care and social support but some may require professional intervention

113
Q

Characteristics of a Mental Disorder

A
  1. It occurs within the individual and results from dysfunction within the individual
  2. There is a clinically diagnosable dysfunction in thoughts, feelings and behaviour
  3. It causes significant personal distress or disability in functioning in everyday life
  4. Actions and reactions are atypical of the person and inappropriate within their culture
  5. It is not the result of personal conflict with society
    (Must be present in order for psychologist to make diagnosis of mental health disorder)
114
Q

Biopsychosocial model

A

Proposes that mental health and mental illness are due to the interactions between and influences of various biological, psychological and social factors

115
Q

Biological Factors

A

Physiologically based/ determined influences
eg. sex, physical health

116
Q

Psychological Factors

A

Mental processes
eg. behaviour, personality

117
Q

Social Factors

A

Environmental conditions
eg. education, socioeconomic status

118
Q

The 4P Factor Model proposes that a mental disorder is influenced by four kinds of factors. List these factors

A

Predisposing risk factors
Precipitating risk factors
Perpetuating risk factors
Protective factors

119
Q

Predisposing risk factors

A

Increases the susceptibility of a mental disorder
(Vulnerability)

120
Q

Precipitating risk factors

A

Increases the susceptibility and contribute to the onset of a mental disorder
(Triggers/causes/onset)

121
Q

Perpetuating risk factors

A

Maintain and prevent recovery from a mental disorder
(Maintainence)

122
Q

Protective Factors

A

Prevent occurence/ re-occurences of a mental disorder
(Safety)

123
Q

DSM-5 provides

A
  • a system for classifying disorders based on the presence of precisely described symptoms
  • info on how likely disorder will progress, degree of impairment and prevalence of disorder
124
Q

Labelling

A

Describes the process of classifying and naming a mental disorder following a diagnosis

125
Q

Social Stigma

A

Refers to the negative attitudes and beliefs held in wider community that lead people to fear, reject, avoid and discriminate against people with a mental disorder

126
Q

Self Stigma

A

Occurs when an individual accepts the negative views of others and applies them to themselves

127
Q

Rosenhan’s research on labelling

A
  • 8 participants faked hearing voices and admitted to hospital, where they displayed no further symptoms
  • Rosenhan’s conclusion = medical staff were unable to recognise normal behaviour once the label of a medical diagnosis had been applied
  • Criticism = hearing voices is sign of serious mental dysfunction so must be treated seriously
128
Q

List the categories of Mental Disorder

A
  • Addiction Disorders
  • Anxiety Disorders
  • Mood Disorders
  • Personality Disorders
  • Psychotic Disorders
129
Q

Addiction

A

Refers to a condition in which someone feels a recurring urge to use a substance or engage in an activity despite potentially harmful consequences

130
Q

Addiction is characterised by

A
  • activation of brain’s reward system
  • persistent and repeated thought, feelings and behaviour associated with the addictive substance or activity
  • reduced level of self-control
  • tolerance involving decreased sensitivity to substance/activity over time
  • withdrawal - unpleasant physical/psychological reactions when use of the substance/activity is reduced/discontinued
131
Q

List examples of substance releated addiction disorders

A

Alcohol, caffeine, tobacco

132
Q

List an example of a non-substance related addiction disorder

A

Gambling disorder

133
Q

Gambling

A

Any activity in which something of value is put at risk in hope of obtaining something of higher value

134
Q

Problem Gambling

A

Characterised by difficulties in limiting money and time spent on gambling, which leads to negative consequences for the gambler, for others or for the community
- linked to excessive dopamine

135
Q

Gambling Disorder

A

Persistent and recurring maladaptive gambling behaviour that disrupts everyday personal, family and/or vocational activities

136
Q

Symptoms of a Gambling Disorder

A
  1. Needs to gamble w increasing amounts of money to achieve desired excitement
  2. Restless/ irritable when attempting to cut down or stop gambling
  3. Made repeated unsuccessful efforts to control or stop gambling
  4. Often preoccupied with gambling
  5. Often gambles when feeling distressed
  6. After losing money gambling, often returns another day to get even
  7. Lies to conceal the extent of gambling
  8. Has jeopardized/ lost a significant rship, job or career opportunity bc of gambling
  9. Relies on others to relieve financial problems caused by gambling
137
Q

Diagnosis of Gambling Disorder

A

In order to be diagnosed with a gambling disorder, a person must experience at least 4 of the 9 symptoms in a 12 month period
Mild Gambling Disorder: 4-5 symptoms
Moderate Gambling Disorder: 6-7 symptoms
Severe Gambling Disorder: 8-9 symptoms

138
Q

Factors Contributing to Gambling Disorder

A

Biological: dopamine reward system
Psychological: cognitive distortions - illusion of control and Gambler’s fallacy
Social: social acceptability of gambling

139
Q

Dopamine Reward System

A

Group of neural pathways that, when stimulated, result in pleasurable effects - positive feelings reinforce behaviours

140
Q

Mesolimbic System

A

In midbrain and connections extend to cerebral cortex. Neurons in this system release dopamine

141
Q

Cognitive Distortion

A

Inaccurate thoughts, beliefs and attitudes that can lead to poor decision making
- illusion of control
- Gambler’s fallacy

142
Q

Illusion of Control

A

The mistaken belief that they can influence random, unpredictable events with their own thoughts and actions eg. choosing lucky lotto numbers

143
Q

Gambler’s Fallacy

A

Mistaken belief that in a series of independent chance events, future events can be predicted from past events eg. 10 heads in a row, more likely to be tails next round

144
Q

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

A

Aims to change patterns in people’s thinking that leads to maladaptive behaviours. It is used to help people recognise the cognitive distortions that perpetuate gambling behaviours and replace them with more accurate thoughts and beliefs

145
Q

Support Groups

A

Groups of people who interact on the basis of common experiences to provide mutual support

146
Q

Gambler’s Anonymous

A

Well-known support group for problem gamblers - support group meeting are confidential so difficult to know effectiveness of program

147
Q

Social Acceptability of Gambling

A
  • many forms of gambling are legal in Australia
  • gambling apps and activities are heavily advertised
  • young Australians are more likely to perceive gambling as socially acceptable and more likely to engage in regular gambling if friends and family promote positive attitudes toward gambling
148
Q

Anxiety

A

State of physiological arousal associated with feeling apprehension, worry or uneasiness that something is wrong or something unpleasant is about to happen
- should be a relatively brief experience and intensity is related to the significance of the situation
- severe anxiety = associated with intense sensations and responses eg. shortness of breath, sweating, nausea, feelings of impending doom

149
Q

Difference between fear and anxiety

A

Fear is a response to a real and present threat to safety or wellbeing eg. scary dog
Anxiety is a response to an anticipated threat eg. doing badly at school

150
Q

Stress

A

State of physiological and psychological arousal produced by internal and external stressors that are perceived by the individual as challenging or exceeding their ability or resources to cope

151
Q

Phobia

A

Excessive or unreasonable fear of a particular object or situation. The fear response is out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the object or situation
- phobias also include a compelling desire to avoid the object or situation

152
Q

Anxiety Disorders

A

Characterised by persistent feelings of tension, distress, nervousness and apprehension about the future with negative effect. A person with an anxiety disorder may feel uneasy or distressed alot of the time, often with no apparent reason
- people who suffer from anxiety disorders do not lose touch with reality or behave in socially unacceptable however, they may become dysfunctional in aspects of their life and find coping with the normal demands of life difficult

153
Q

List and describe 3 types of Anxiety Disorders

A
  • Panic Disorder: recurring unexpected panic attacks
  • Specific Phobia: excessive and unreasonable fear of a specific object/situation
  • Social Anxiety Disorder: excessive, unreasonable fear of being negatively judged by others
154
Q

List the biological factors contributing to Anxiety Disorders

A

Stress response
Brain Chemistry

155
Q

List the psychological factors contributing to Anxiety Disorders

A

Learning processes
Catastrophic thinking

156
Q

List the social factors contributing to Anxiety Disorders

A

Transmission of threat information
Parental modelling

157
Q

Stress Response (Anxiety Disorders)

A

Research suggests some people with an anxiety disorder experience an over-reactive autonomic nervous system when they perceive a threat - this response is initiated by the sympathetic nervous system

158
Q

Brain Chemistry (Anxiety Disorders)

A

An imbalance in the brain chemistry involving the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA may contribute to anxiety disorders
Low levels of GABA can be a predisposing factor for the development of an anxiety disorder
symptoms of low GABA: trouble relaxing, easily agitated
factors involving reducing GABA levels: chronic stress and adrenal fatigue

159
Q

Classical Conditioning (Anxiety Disorder)

A

The association between two stimuli can contribute to specific phobias eg. Little Albert
- a fear response is learned initially by associating a fear response to a stimulus that did not initially cause that response (neutral stimulus)

160
Q

Operant Conditioning (Anxiety Disorders)

A

Can reinforce or perpetuate specific phobias ie. we are ‘rewarded’ with a lack of anxiety when we avoid the subject of the phobia and ‘punished’ with anxiety when we come into contact with it
- once a response has been learned, the person starts to avoid the stimulus which reinforces the avoidance behaviour

161
Q

Behavioural Model

A

Imply that anxiety disorders can be learned, conditioned, acquired, maintained or modified by environment and environmental consequences

162
Q

Two-factor Learning Theory

A

States that anxiety is precipitated (triggered) through classical conditioning and is perpetuated (maintained) through operant conditioning

163
Q

Catastrophic Thinking

A

A thinking style that involves overestimating, exaggerating or magnifying an object or situation and predicting the worst possible outcome
- when catastrophic thinking occurs, individuals experience heightened feelings of helplessness and they grossly underestimate their ability to cope with the situation

164
Q

Transmission of threat information

A

Refers to how people around us communicate about potentially dangerous events and objects ie verbally - ‘dont touch that’ and non verbally - squealing, shaking

165
Q

Parental Modelling

A

refers to the process of children learning to imitate their parents’ behaviours. It has a significant influence on the types of objects and events that children learn to view as threatening/ stressful

166
Q

Interventions for Anxiety Disorders

A
  • focus on addressing biological, social and psychological factors
  • identifying and challenging cognitive distortions is a major focus along with education
  • behaviour that reinforces the fear and anxiety are also challenged
  • teaching relaxation is often used as a behavioural component
167
Q

Exposure Therapy (psychological interventions)

A

Sometimes used to treat specific phobias. Involves gradually exposing the patient to the feared object or situation while simultaneously practising relaxation and controlled breathing techniques to manage symptoms of panic

168
Q

Systematic Desensitisation

A

A behaviour therapy that aims to replace an anxiety response with relaxation response when an individual is exposed to a fear stimulus
- type of exposure therapy
- applies classical conditioning techniques
- involves unlearning associated responses and reassociating feelings of anxiety with safety/ relaxation

169
Q

Biological interventions for Anxiety Disorders

A

Anti-anxiety medication can be used to alleviated symptoms in the short to medium term but have side effects and can produce psychological or physical dependency

170
Q

Benzodiazepines

A

A groups of drugs that work on the CNS, acting selectively on GABA receptors in the brain to increase GABA’s inhibitory effects and make post synaptic neurons resistant to excitation
- have anti-anxiety and sleeping properties
- often called sedatives or depressants
- can cause drowsiness or can be highly addictive

171
Q

Social Interventions for Anxiety Disorders

A

Psychoeducation for families and supporters

172
Q

Psychological Interventions for Anxiety Disorders

A

Exposure Therapy
Systematic Desensitisation

173
Q

Step 1 of Psychoeducation for families and supporters

A

Challenge unrealistic or anxious thoughts
- anxious thoughts can trigger a phobic response
- unrealistic thoughts can trigger anxious thoughts
- families and friends can challenge these thoughts

174
Q

Step 2 of Psychoeducation for families and supporters

A

Not encouraging avoidance behaviours
- avoidance behaviours strengthen phobias
- families/ supports must be able to recognise these behaviours and not encourage them
- care should be taken ad families should not try to force sufferers to confront phobic stimulus

175
Q

Mood

A

An overall feeling that colours our perception of the world and influences how we go about daily life
- non-specific emotional state
- involve a disabling disturbance in emotional state

176
Q

Depression

A

A lasting and continuous deeply sad mood or loss of pleasure

177
Q

Mania

A

elevated mood involves intense elation or irritability

178
Q

Hypomania

A

An extremely happy or irritated mood that is not as extreme as mania

179
Q

Characteristics of Manic episodes include

A
  • talking excessively and rapidly
  • being easily distracted
  • unrealistically high opinions on oneself
  • obliviousness to negative consequences of one’s actions
180
Q

List the types of Mood Disorder

A

Major Depressive disorder
Dysthymia
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
Bipolar 1 disorder
Bipolar 11 disorder
Cyclothymia

181
Q

Major Depressive Disorder

A
  • duration must persist at least two weeks
  • feeling sad most of the time or loss of pleasure most of the time
  • 4 or more symptoms occurring most days - feeling fatigued, irritable, sleep problems, loss or change of appetite, significant weight loss or gain
182
Q

Dysthymia

A

Persistent depressive disorder
- similar symptoms to major depressive disorder but less severe with a longer duration (must persist for two years for this diagnosis)

183
Q

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

A

dysfunctional changes in mood on the week before the onset of menstruation eg. mood swings, feeling suddenly sad or fearful, loss of control

184
Q

Bipolar I disorder

A

Fluctuations between periods of major depression and mania

185
Q

Bipolar II disorder

A

Fluctuations between periods of major depression and hypomania

186
Q

Cyclothymia

A

Experience periods of manic symptoms and depressive symptoms over a period of at least two years - these periods are shorter and less severe than in bipolar disorder

187
Q

List the biological factors contributing to Depression

A

Genes
Brain Chemistry

188
Q

List the psychological factors contributing to Depression

A

Psychological responses to change
Habitually negative thinking

189
Q

List the social factors contributing to Depression

A

Poverty
Social stress
Social isolation

190
Q

Genes contributing to depression

A
  • twin and adoption studies show that depression has a genetic component/ predisposition
  • if one parent has depression, the risk that their child will experience depression at some point is 25-30%
191
Q

Neurotransmitters contributing to Depression

A
  • defiency in excitatory neurotransmitters serotonin and noradrenaline is thought to lead to depression (oversupply may be underlying cause of mania)
  • anti-depressant drugs that inhibit the re-uptake of serotonin and noradrenaline can relieve symptoms of depression
192
Q

Psychological response to change contributing to Depression

A
  • major depression is often precipitated by stressful life events that disrupt everyday life in an ongoing way
  • anything that causes change in daily life can contribute to the risk of developing depression
  • a persons response to stress is unique to the situation and involves a transaction between the person and the environment where the person decides something is stressful based on their assessment of their coping strategies
193
Q

Habitually negative thoughts contributing to Depression

A
  • depression is often perpetuated by habitually negative thoughts, which pop up automatically in response to everyday events
  • these negative thoughts lead to further negative thoughts
  • the constant stream of negative thoughts leads to negative feelings and affects behaviour
194
Q

Poverty contributing to Depression

A
  • poverty = lack of basic life necessities such as sufficient food, shelter, clothing and access to services such as healthcare and education
  • there is a strong correlation between poverty and depression but the direction of causality is unclear
195
Q

Social Stress and Isolation contributing to Depression

A
  • social stress is produced when we experience friction in our relationship with others - often a precipitating risk factor to depression especially in women
  • social isolation is a lack of interaction and relationship with others - people who live alone are twice as likely to have major depression than those who live with others
196
Q

Biological Interventions on Depression

A

Antidepressant Medications
Diet and exercise

197
Q

Antidepressant medications on Depression

A
  • work by blocking the re-uptake of serotonin in the synapse therefore compensating for serotonin deficiency because keeps more serotonin in the synapse
  • Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) = ease symptoms of moderate to severe depression and are relatively safe and few side effects
  • serotonin is usually reabsorbed by nerve cells and SSRIs block reuptake - more serotonin avaible to pass further mesagges so increase levels can improve symptoms
198
Q

Diet on Depression

A

A dietary pattern characterised by high intake of fruit, veg, whole grain, fish = associated with a decreased risk of depression
A dietary pattern characterised by high consumption of red meat, refined grains, sweets, butter = associated with an increased risk of depression
Careful consideration of diet = positive intervention

199
Q

Exercise on Depression

A

Regular exercise may alleviate symptoms of depression by:
- increasing energy levels
- improving sleep
- distraction from worry
Exercise does not need to be extremely vigorous to be helpful for depression

200
Q

Meditation on Depression

A

Trains the mind to focus on a single stimuli and block habitually negative thoughts
Meditation = practice where an individual uses a technique such as mindfulness or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought or activity, to train attention and awareness and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state

201
Q

Social support on Depression

A

Social support can help depression
Social support can take many forms and might include
- listing to concerns
- challenging negative thinking
- providing positive alternatives to negative reinforcing behaviours

202
Q

Personality

A

A unique pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviour that is relatively stable across time and in different situations

203
Q

Personality Disorders

A

Characterised by inflexible and maladaptive personality characteristics that interfere with functioning or cause significant personal distress

204
Q

Narcissistic Personality Disorder is characterised by

A
  • an exaggerated sense of self-importance
  • an overwhelming need for admiration from others
  • a lack of empathy for or interest in others
  • extreme sensitivity to criticism
  • preoccupations with fantasies of power and success
  • overestimation of personal qualities and achievements
205
Q

Borderline Personality Disorder is characterised by

A
  • ongoing impulsivity and intense fluctuations in mood, self-image and relationships with others
  • frequent feelings of depression, emptiness and fear of abandonment
  • self-damaging behaviours
    Most commonly diagnosed personality disorder and more common in women
206
Q

Histrionic Personality Disorder

A

Characterised by continual attention seeking behaviours and exaggerated expression of emotions

207
Q

Dependent Personality Disorder

A

Characterised by an over-reliance on others and reluctance to take responsibility for oneself

208
Q

Paranoid Personality Disorder

A

Characterised by distrust and suspicion of others

209
Q

Antisocial Personality Disorder is characterised by

A
  • disregard for the rights of others and the law
  • irresponsibility
  • a lack of remorse for wrongdoing
  • impulsive and aggressive behaviour
  • shallow emotions
  • a lack of empathy for and loyalty towards others
210
Q

Prevalence of Antisocial Personality Disorder

A
  • outside psych, people with this disorder are referred to as sociopaths or psychopaths
  • 1-3% of general pop diagnosed and 40-70% prison inmates diagnosed
  • men are 3x more likely than women to be diagnosed with APD
211
Q

List the biological factors contributing to Antisocial Personality Disorder

A

Genes
Brain structures - frontal lobe and limbic system abnormalities

212
Q

List the psychological factors contributing to Antisocial Personality Disorder

A

Emotional poverty

213
Q

List the social factors contributing to Antisocial Personality Disorder

A

Family environment
Social modelling

214
Q

Genes contributing to Antisocial Personality Disorder

A
  • twin and adoption studies suggest APD may have a genetic component
  • geneticists have identified 6 genes associated w development of psychopathic traits and at least 4 alleles need to be inherited to be at an increased risk of APD
215
Q

Brain Structures contributing to Antisocial Personality Disorder

A
  • APD = associated w reduced frontal lobe activity
  • lack of activity in orbital cortex = associated w psychopathic traits
  • may be result of genetic preprogramming/ injury
  • reduced limbic system activity = thought to be responsible for the lack of fear of punishment and shallow emotions typical of people w APD
216
Q

Emotional Poverty contributing to Antisocial Personality Disorder

A

Emotional Poverty = describes the typical reduced depth of feelings experienced by people w APD
- leads to lack of empathy = the ability to imagine the emotions of others
- men w APD scored badly on test requiring them to recognise the emotions of others (in particular fear)

217
Q

Family Environment contributing to Antisocial Personality Disorder

A
  • inadequate supervision, abuse, neglect, harsh and inconsistent discipline and are common in the family backgrounds of people diagnosed with APD
218
Q

Social Modelling contributing to Antisocial Personality Disorder

A

Children learn antisocial behaviours from parents

219
Q

Intervention for Antisocial personality disorder

A
  • no ‘cures’ for personality disorders and treatments for adults are not often effective
  • many people w personality disorders experiences co-occurring mental disorders that can be treated (ie addiction disorders)
  • treatment for children and adolescents who exhibit symptoms of ‘conduct disorder’ work by using positive reinforcement to encourage normal behaviour
220
Q

Psychosis

A

A condition in which a person experiences a loss of contact with reality

221
Q

Psychotic Disorders

A

Characterised by symptoms of delusion, hallucination and disorganised thinking

222
Q

Positive Symptoms of Psychotic Disorders

A

Experiences and behaviours that have been added to a person’s normal way of functioning eg. hallucinations

223
Q

Negative Symptoms of Psychotic Disorders

A

Take something away from a person’s normal way of functioning eg. loss of motivation

224
Q

List the positive symptoms of Psychotic Disorders

A

Hallucinations
Delusions
Disorganised thinking

225
Q

Delusions in Psychotic Disorders

A

Fixed false beliefs that are held with absolute certainty, even in the face of contradictor factual evidence

226
Q

List the types of psychotic delusions

A

Persecution: Everyone is out to get me
Reference: Someone powerful is sending me secret messages
Control: Some is controlling what I say and do
Grandeur: I’m a very special and important person

227
Q

Hallucinations in Psychotic Disorders

A

A perceptual experience during which the individual sees, hears, smells, feels or tastes something that is not actually present in reality
- auditory hallucinations = can be experienced as happening through the ears or directly into the mind or coming through another part of body
- make it difficult to concentrate on external events

228
Q

Disorganised Speech

A

Disorganised speech reflects disorganised thinking in which thoughts are disconnected and jumbled
- Derailment = occurs when patients suddenly switch from talking about one topic to a completely unrelated topic
- Tangentiality = occurs when answers to questions are vaguely related or completely unrelated

229
Q

Grossly disorganised motor behaviour

A

The behaviour of people with psychotic disorders often seem unusual, inappropriate, purposeless or erratic
- may not be able to carry out basic functions like personal hygiene
- may act socially inappropriate ways, such as talking to themselves loudly or shouting/swearing

230
Q

Catonia

A

Refers to the reduced responsivity to external events and often involves unusual motor behaviour
- Catatonic negativism = reduced responsiveness to instructions
- Catatonic mutism = lack of verbal responsiveness
- Catatonic stupor = lack of motor responsiveness
- Catatonic excitement = purposeless and excessive motor activity

231
Q

List the negative symptoms of Psychotic Disorders

A

Catonia
Affective Flattening
Avolition
Alogia
Anhedoma

232
Q

Negative Symptoms of Psychotic Disorders

A

Affective Functioning = a reduction in the intensity of emotional expression (eye contact, facial expressions)
Avolition = a decrease in self-initiated purposeful activities
Alogia = a reduction in the content and fluency of speech
Anhedomia = decreased ability to experience pleasure from normally enjoyable activities

233
Q

List the types of Psychotic Disorder

A

Schizophrenia
Delusional disorder
Brief psychotic disorder
Schizoaffective disorder
Substance/ medicine-induced psychotic disorder

234
Q

Schizophrenia

A

Characterised by persistent symptoms of psychosis. TO be diagnosed, symptoms must persist for at least 6 weeks

235
Q

Delusional disorder

A

Characterised by persistent delusions

236
Q

Brief Psychotic Disorder

A

Characterised by one or more symptoms of psychosis that is experienced for between one day and one month before symptoms disappear

237
Q

List the biological factors contributing to Schizophrenia

A

Genes
Brain structures

238
Q

List the psychological factors contributing to Schizophrenia

A

Stress
Cognitive impairments

239
Q

List the social factors contributing to Schizophrenia

A

Family environment

240
Q

Genes on Schizophrenia

A
  • numerous studies have found that schizophrenia tends to run in families
  • more closely individuals are related to someone with schizophrenia leads to a greater chance of developing schizophrenia
  • no single gene is responsible for increased risk of schizophrenia
241
Q

Brain structures on Schizophrenia

A
  • reduced activity in prefrontal cortex
  • lower amounts of grey matter in frontal, parietal and temporal lobes
  • enlarged ventricles in the cerebral cortex - fluid filled spaces increase as nearby neurons degenerate
  • small hippocampus and amygdala
242
Q

Stress on Schizophrenia

A
  • stress = a person judges that a situation is beyond their capacity to cope - can be a precipitating risk factor for the onset of Schizophrenia in people who already have predisposing risk factors
  • people with Schizophrenia = tend to be more reactive and psychologically affected under stress than the general population
243
Q

Stress-Vulnerability Model

A

Proposes that all people have some level of vulnerability for any given mental disorder and the risk of developing the disorder varies in relation to the combined effect of a number of stresses

244
Q

Cognitive Impairments on Schizophrenia

A
  • jumping to conclusions on the basis of inadequate or ambiguous info can lead to the formation of delusions
  • working memory (processes info we are consciously thinking about) = is slower and has a lower capacity
  • episodic memory (stores long term memories of personal experiences) = deficient and can lead to a loss of personal identity
245
Q

Impaired Reasoning on Schizophrenia

A
  • a cognitive problem that can contribute to the development and progression of mental disorders
246
Q

Reasoning

A

Involves a goal-directed thinking in which inferences are made or conclusions are drawn from known or assumed facts

247
Q

Probabilistic Reasoning

A

Involves making judgements related to the probability, more specifically, the likelihood of something happening or being true
- schizophrenics = often have impaired probabilistic reasoning
- find it difficult to interpret social situations which leads to the development and persistence of delusions

248
Q

Social factors on Schizophrenia

A

psychiatrist Pekka Tienari = conducted a 40year longitudinal study of adopted children whose biological mothers had Schizophrenia
- children with a genetic predisposition to Schizophrenia = at a much higher risk if raised in a psychologically unhealthy environment
- children whose biological mothers had Schizophrenia but were raised in psychologically healthy families had a similar risk of developing Schizophrenia as the control group

249
Q

The Two-Hit Hypothesis

A

Proposes that Schizophrenia is caused by two sequential events
1. A biological vulnerability eg inheritance of genes associated with Schizophrenia or infection that disrupts normal brain development in utero
2. A major stressful life event eg a dysfunctional family environment, abuse or trauma

250
Q

Interventions for Schizophrenia

A

Anti-psychotic medications = can relieve symptoms of disorganised thinking, delusions and hallucinations but side effects include nausea, muscle spasms, weight gain etc
Cognitive Behavioural therapy = complement meds and help people recognise and change patterns of irrational thinking and teach strategies to help cope with impaired memory
Social Support Programs = can help people find work and accommodation and reduce stress related to poverty and stigma

Psychology 1/2 (5 decks)

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