Developmental Psychology Flashcards

Question

Social Development in Childhood

Answer 1

Independence from adults Play and social development

Answer 2

Strengthening peer groups Personality changes

Answer 3

Establishing personal relationships and intimate relationships Career

Answer 4

Expand social and personal involvements Supporting children in their development

Answer 5

Decreased work Death of friends and family

Answer 6

Emotional attachment between infant and primary caregiver

Answer 7

Moral development

Answer 8

Developing identity

Answer 9

Development of intimate relationships Select life partners

Answer 10

Expand social and personal involvements Supporting children in their development

Answer 11

Death of friends and family New roles in society

Answer 12

States that unless the necessary physical maturation has occured, no amount of practice will produce a particular mental process or behaviour - earlier development lays the foundation for the next stage eg. cannot run until you learn to walk

Answer 13

The study of how environment factors affect how our genes are expressed - rats passed learning on through epigenetic tags - how DNA code was read and used to produce protein

Answer 14

Formed when a single fertilized egg (zygote) spontaneously splits into two and develops into two foetuses - share 100% of their genes

Answer 15

Develop when two eggs are released at the same time and fertilized by two different sperm - share 50% of the same genes

Answer 16

Parents tend to treat identical twins more similarly than non-identical twins

Answer 17

Involve research using people who have been adopted, as well as their adoptive and biological parents, as participants - making comparisons between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents, researchers can draw conclusions about the influence of heredity and environment

Answer 18

Refers to the question of whether our development is due to mainly genetics (heredity) or the environment

Answer 19

Refers to the emotional bond that forms between an infant and caregiver

Answer 20

Proposed by John Bowlby to describe how infants relate emotionally to their caregivers - proposes that attachment is a mammalian survival mechanism that keeps offsprings close to caregivers

Answer 21

- Proximity Maintenance - Safe Haven - Secure Base - Seperation Distress

Answer 22

The level of desire that an infant has to be near the caregiver

Answer 23

The ability of the infant to return to the caregiver when stressed

Answer 24

The attachment figure becomes the base from which to explore

Answer 25

Level of anxiety felt by infant when caregiver leaves

Answer 26

- by Mary Ainsworth typically on infants 9-18months old - infant and caregiver enter unfamiliar room and a stranger comes in and behaviour is observed - reveals that infants show attachment to caregivers through behaviours that promote closeness or contact between themselves and the caregiver

Answer 27

Refers to an infants cautiousness towards and around unfamiliar people

Answer 28

Refers to signs of distress displayed by an infant when not in the presence of their main caregiver

Answer 29

- Secure Attachment (65% of infants) - Insecure Avoid Attachment (20% of infants) - Insecure Resistant Attachment (12% of infants)

Answer 30

- uses caregiver as base for exploration - shows signs of seperation anxiety but is easily soothed by caregiver when reunited

Answer 31

- the infant doesnt seek closeness with the caregiver - when seperated, the infants doesn't show signs of seperation anxiety - the infant ignores the caregiver upon reunion - research suggests the attachment style may be the result of neglect/ abuse

Answer 32

- the infant appears anxious, even in the presence of the caregiver - extreme distress when the caregiver leaves - initially seek comfort from the caregiver upon reunion but is difficult to soothe - thought to be the result of caregivers who are frequently unresponsive to the infants needs

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- infant's behaviour is inconsistent with the patterns displayed in secure and insecure attachment and seemingly contradictory eg. responding to reunion w fearful behaviours such as rocking or ear-pulling, seeking comfort from caregiver upon reunion. but moving very slowly toward them

Answer 34

Causes: maltreatment, hostile caregiving, post-natal depression, caregiver experiencing trauma or loss some infants with disorganised attachment = have seemingly normal background Outcomes: has been linked to mental health issues in later life

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- good self-esteem - trusting relationships with friends and romantic partners - seek out social support - comfortable expressing feelings

Answer 36

- anxiety - difficulty forming and maintaining close relationships with others - difficulty expressing emotions

Answer 37

Genetics Temperament Early life experiences

Answer 38

Bowlby suggested that infants are genetically pre-programmed to display attachment signals such as crying, clinging, smiling and gazing at the caregiver - these develop in a fixed, age-related sequence (through maturation)

Answer 39

An individual's characteristic way of reacting to people, objects and events

Answer 40

Temperament differences between infants are evident from birth and persist through childhood and adulthood - have a genetic basis

Answer 41

Easy Difficult Slow to warm up

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Usually content and happy, adaptable to new experiences, regular feeding and sleeping habits, tolerant of frustration and discomfort

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Often irritable, irregular sleep and eating habits, negative reactions to disruptions to their routines, throw tantrums when frustrated/ uncomfortable

Answer 44

Somewhat moody, moderately regular sleeping and eating habits, cautious in new situations

Answer 45

Sensitivity and responsiveness of the caregiver Demographic factors

Answer 46

Infants are more likely to form secure attachments to caregivers who are able to respond quickly and appropriately to signs of their discomfort

Answer 47

Family income, family size, parental age and educational level, stability of parents relationship, cultural background etc

Answer 48

- regardless of whether the monkey was fed by wire surrogate or cloth surrogate mother, they still spent more hours a day on the cloth surrogate mother - b/c cloth mother provided monkeys with a sense of comfort as they could cuddle them and experience more enjoyable physical contact, and a sense of comfort and safety - these results suggest that enjoyable physical contact between the monkeys and their mothers contributed to the development of bonds between them

Answer 49

A mental idea of what something is and how to act on it - according to Piaget, schemata are the basic building blocks of intelligent behaviour

Answer 50

Are the inborn survival reflexes, like sucking and grasping - this enables infants to interact with the world from birth - our schemata becomes more sophisticated as we mature and our environment expands

Answer 51

Through Adaptation - the process by which we take in, organise and use new information (Requires assimilation and accommodation)

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When new information is fit into existing schema

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When schemata are altered to let in new information

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1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) 2. Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years) 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years) 4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)

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Characterised by infants learning about their surroundings through their senses and motor interactions with their environment

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Characterised by Egocentrism (tendency to perceive world solely from ones own point of view), Animism (belief that everything that exists has some kind of consciousness) and Centration (inability to focus on more than one feature of an object at a time - unable to grasp conservation of mass, no and volume)

Answer 57

- Able to perform mental operations - involves being able to accurately imagine the consequences of an action without it needing to happen - Mental operations are limited to concrete objects and events - things that can be experienced with the senses

Answer 58

- Children achieve abstract thinking (the ability to conduct mental operations on concepts that are not experienced through the senses)

Answer 59

- Sensory and motor coordination - Increased goal-directed behaviour (successfully completing sequences of actions with a particular purpose) - Acquire object permanence (understanding that object exists when it cant be seen)

Answer 60

- Symbolic Thinking (ability to use symbols such as words and images to represent objects that are not physically present) - Transformation (the understanding that something can change from one state to another) - Reversibility (the ability to mentally follow a sequence of events back to its starting point)

Answer 61

- Conservation (knowing that mass, no and volume remain the same despite changes in the appearance of an object) - Decentering (the ability to consider more than one characteristic of an object or problem) - Classification (the ability to organise objects/ events into categories based on common features that set them apart from other categories)

Answer 62

- Deductive Reasoning (ability to draw conclusions from two pieces of info that are believed to be true) - Systematic Problem Solving (the ability to test solutions to problems in an orderly way) - Idealistic Thinking (the ability to envisage better alternatives to reality)

Answer 63

- experimenter effect - biased bc own children and small sample - later replications show many children reach each stage earlier than he thought - Many children are able to understand conservation much earlier than Piaget's participants who may have failed the conservation tests bc they were bored or asked in confusing ways - Infants can think in more complex ways than describe

Answer 64

Involves both psychological processes which take place within an individual and their experiences with other people - based on extensive case studies using people from different cultures

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- moves through 8 distinct and sequential stages - in each stage a specific psychosocial crisis occurs - personal conflict an individual faces in adjusting to society, causing a healthy personality and productive lifestyle

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Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust 0-18 months Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt 18 months-3 years Stage 3: Initiative vs Guild 3-5 years Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority 5-12 years Stage 5: Identity vs Role Confusion 12-18 years Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation 18-25 years Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation 25-65 years Stage 8: Integrity vs Despair 65+ years

Answer 67

- infants develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, warmth and physical care - a lack of this will cause mistrust - trust helps infants form attachments to their parents - mistrust can cause insecurity, suspiciousness and an inability to relate to others

Answer 68

- children learn to develop a sense of control over physical skills and a sense of independence - Autonomy = the ability to do things independently and feelings of self-control, self-competence and self-reliance - if caregivers are overprotective then shame and doubt will develop

Answer 69

- through play, children learn to make plans and carry out tasks - parents reinforce by giving children freedom to play, use imagination and ask questions, promoting initiative (using one's own resourcefulness to solve problems) - feelings of guilt form if parents criticise severely, prevent play or discourage questions

Answer 70

- children have to cope with new social and academic demands and become interested in how things are made - any encouragement allows their sense of industry to increase and feel worthwhile - if a child's work is considered messy, childish or inadequate, then the child can develop feelings of inferiority

Answer 71

- adolescents have to build a steady identity based on their talents, values, relationships and culture - those who can successfully solve this dilemma will come out wit ha new sense of self that is inspirational and normal - those who don't develop an identity will suffer from role confusion - an uncertainty about who they are and where they are going

Answer 72

- after establishing a stable identity, a person is prepared to share meaningful love or deep friendship with others - Intimacy = the ability to care about others and share experiences with them - young adults who achieve this are able to experience a mature and intimate love - failure to establish intimacy results in a deep sense of isolation

Answer 73

- primary crisis = contributing to society and helping to guide future generations - generativity = expressed by caring about oneself, one's children and future generations - adults who do not achieve generativity may feel stagnation (self-absorption and failing to find a way to contribute)

Answer 74

- a person must be able to look back over life with acceptance and satisfaction - the person who has lived richly and responsibly develops a sense of integrity - allowing the person facing ageing and death with dignity - if adults feel unhappy with their life path and missed opportunities, then they may suffer from despair/ regret

Answer 75

Socio-cultural approach Functional approach Historical approach Medical approach Statistical approach Situational approach

Answer 76

Thoughts, feelings and behaviour that are considered acceptable in a particular society eg. wailing at a funeral is considered appropriate in some society but somes not

Answer 77

Thoughts, feelings and behaviour are viewed as normal, so long as they dont interfere with individuals living independently eg. being so unhappy you cant get out of bed

Answer 78

Thoughts, feelings and behaviours that are considered acceptable depends on the period in time in which the judgement is being made eg. modern day beachwear considered indecent a long time ago

Answer 79

Thoughts, feelings and behaviours may be considered abnormal if they are shared by a large majority of people and abnormal if they only occur in a small minority of people eg. most people will score between 85-115 on IQ test but 0.1% below 55 and above 145

Answer 80

Particular thoughts, feelings and emotions can be appropriate in some contexts and inappropriate in others eg. tackling a stranger is fine on a football field but not on the street

Answer 81

Describes the usual actions of an individual

Answer 82

Refers to the actions that are out of character for an individual may be a sign of mental health issues if they are persistent, evident in different situations in everyday life and maladaptive

Answer 83

Enable individuals to adjust to their environments appropriately and effectively

Answer 84

Interfere with the ability to adjust to the environment appropriately and effectively - can range from relatively minor to severely dysfunctional (target of intervention by psychologists)

Answer 85

State of wellbeing in which an individual realises his or her abilities, can cope with normal stresses of life, can work productively and is able to contribute to his or her community

Answer 86

Most often occur as a result of a life stress and are usually resolved with time or when the stressor goes away

Answer 87

(psychological disorder or mental illness) Involves a combination of thoughts, feelings and behaviours which impair the ability to function effectively in everyday life

Answer 88

Mental health and mental illness exist on a continuum and there is no clear boundary between the two Mental health problems exist on the spectrum between mental health and mental disorder - some can be restored with self care and social support but some may require professional intervention

Answer 89

1. It occurs within the individual and results from dysfunction within the individual 2. There is a clinically diagnosable dysfunction in thoughts, feelings and behaviour 3. It causes significant personal distress or disability in functioning in everyday life 4. Actions and reactions are atypical of the person and inappropriate within their culture 5. It is not the result of personal conflict with society (Must be present in order for psychologist to make diagnosis of mental health disorder)

Answer 90

Proposes that mental health and mental illness are due to the interactions between and influences of various biological, psychological and social factors

Answer 91

Physiologically based/ determined influences eg. sex, physical health

Answer 92

Mental processes eg. behaviour, personality

Answer 93

Environmental conditions eg. education, socioeconomic status

Answer 94

Predisposing risk factors Precipitating risk factors Perpetuating risk factors Protective factors

Answer 95

Increases the susceptibility of a mental disorder (Vulnerability)

Answer 96

Increases the susceptibility and contribute to the onset of a mental disorder (Triggers/causes/onset)

Answer 97

Maintain and prevent recovery from a mental disorder (Maintainence)

Answer 98

Prevent occurence/ re-occurences of a mental disorder (Safety)

Answer 99

- a system for classifying disorders based on the presence of precisely described symptoms - info on how likely disorder will progress, degree of impairment and prevalence of disorder

Answer 100

Describes the process of classifying and naming a mental disorder following a diagnosis

Answer 101

Refers to the negative attitudes and beliefs held in wider community that lead people to fear, reject, avoid and discriminate against people with a mental disorder

Answer 102

Occurs when an individual accepts the negative views of others and applies them to themselves

Answer 103

- 8 participants faked hearing voices and admitted to hospital, where they displayed no further symptoms - Rosenhan's conclusion = medical staff were unable to recognise normal behaviour once the label of a medical diagnosis had been applied - Criticism = hearing voices is sign of serious mental dysfunction so must be treated seriously

Answer 104

- Addiction Disorders - Anxiety Disorders - Mood Disorders - Personality Disorders - Psychotic Disorders

Answer 105

Refers to a condition in which someone feels a recurring urge to use a substance or engage in an activity despite potentially harmful consequences

Answer 106

- activation of brain's reward system - persistent and repeated thought, feelings and behaviour associated with the addictive substance or activity - reduced level of self-control - tolerance involving decreased sensitivity to substance/activity over time - withdrawal - unpleasant physical/psychological reactions when use of the substance/activity is reduced/discontinued

Answer 107

Alcohol, caffeine, tobacco

Answer 108

Gambling disorder

Answer 109

Any activity in which something of value is put at risk in hope of obtaining something of higher value

Answer 110

Characterised by difficulties in limiting money and time spent on gambling, which leads to negative consequences for the gambler, for others or for the community - linked to excessive dopamine

Answer 111

Persistent and recurring maladaptive gambling behaviour that disrupts everyday personal, family and/or vocational activities

Answer 112

1. Needs to gamble w increasing amounts of money to achieve desired excitement 2. Restless/ irritable when attempting to cut down or stop gambling 3. Made repeated unsuccessful efforts to control or stop gambling 4. Often preoccupied with gambling 5. Often gambles when feeling distressed 6. After losing money gambling, often returns another day to get even 7. Lies to conceal the extent of gambling 8. Has jeopardized/ lost a significant rship, job or career opportunity bc of gambling 9. Relies on others to relieve financial problems caused by gambling

Answer 113

In order to be diagnosed with a gambling disorder, a person must experience at least 4 of the 9 symptoms in a 12 month period Mild Gambling Disorder: 4-5 symptoms Moderate Gambling Disorder: 6-7 symptoms Severe Gambling Disorder: 8-9 symptoms

Answer 114

Biological: dopamine reward system Psychological: cognitive distortions - illusion of control and Gambler's fallacy Social: social acceptability of gambling

Answer 115

Group of neural pathways that, when stimulated, result in pleasurable effects - positive feelings reinforce behaviours

Answer 116

In midbrain and connections extend to cerebral cortex. Neurons in this system release dopamine

Answer 117

Inaccurate thoughts, beliefs and attitudes that can lead to poor decision making - illusion of control - Gambler's fallacy

Answer 118

The mistaken belief that they can influence random, unpredictable events with their own thoughts and actions eg. choosing lucky lotto numbers

Answer 119

Mistaken belief that in a series of independent chance events, future events can be predicted from past events eg. 10 heads in a row, more likely to be tails next round

Answer 120

Aims to change patterns in people's thinking that leads to maladaptive behaviours. It is used to help people recognise the cognitive distortions that perpetuate gambling behaviours and replace them with more accurate thoughts and beliefs

Answer 121

Groups of people who interact on the basis of common experiences to provide mutual support

Answer 122

Well-known support group for problem gamblers - support group meeting are confidential so difficult to know effectiveness of program

Answer 123

- many forms of gambling are legal in Australia - gambling apps and activities are heavily advertised - young Australians are more likely to perceive gambling as socially acceptable and more likely to engage in regular gambling if friends and family promote positive attitudes toward gambling

Answer 124

State of physiological arousal associated with feeling apprehension, worry or uneasiness that something is wrong or something unpleasant is about to happen - should be a relatively brief experience and intensity is related to the significance of the situation - severe anxiety = associated with intense sensations and responses eg. shortness of breath, sweating, nausea, feelings of impending doom

Answer 125

Fear is a response to a real and present threat to safety or wellbeing eg. scary dog Anxiety is a response to an anticipated threat eg. doing badly at school

Answer 126

State of physiological and psychological arousal produced by internal and external stressors that are perceived by the individual as challenging or exceeding their ability or resources to cope

Answer 127

Excessive or unreasonable fear of a particular object or situation. The fear response is out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the object or situation - phobias also include a compelling desire to avoid the object or situation

Answer 128

Characterised by persistent feelings of tension, distress, nervousness and apprehension about the future with negative effect. A person with an anxiety disorder may feel uneasy or distressed alot of the time, often with no apparent reason - people who suffer from anxiety disorders do not lose touch with reality or behave in socially unacceptable however, they may become dysfunctional in aspects of their life and find coping with the normal demands of life difficult

Answer 129

- Panic Disorder: recurring unexpected panic attacks - Specific Phobia: excessive and unreasonable fear of a specific object/situation - Social Anxiety Disorder: excessive, unreasonable fear of being negatively judged by others

Answer 130

Stress response Brain Chemistry

Answer 131

Learning processes Catastrophic thinking

Answer 132

Transmission of threat information Parental modelling

Answer 133

Research suggests some people with an anxiety disorder experience an over-reactive autonomic nervous system when they perceive a threat - this response is initiated by the sympathetic nervous system

Answer 134

An imbalance in the brain chemistry involving the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA may contribute to anxiety disorders Low levels of GABA can be a predisposing factor for the development of an anxiety disorder symptoms of low GABA: trouble relaxing, easily agitated factors involving reducing GABA levels: chronic stress and adrenal fatigue

Answer 135

The association between two stimuli can contribute to specific phobias eg. Little Albert - a fear response is learned initially by associating a fear response to a stimulus that did not initially cause that response (neutral stimulus)

Answer 136

Can reinforce or perpetuate specific phobias ie. we are 'rewarded' with a lack of anxiety when we avoid the subject of the phobia and 'punished' with anxiety when we come into contact with it - once a response has been learned, the person starts to avoid the stimulus which reinforces the avoidance behaviour

Answer 137

Imply that anxiety disorders can be learned, conditioned, acquired, maintained or modified by environment and environmental consequences

Answer 138

States that anxiety is precipitated (triggered) through classical conditioning and is perpetuated (maintained) through operant conditioning

Answer 139

A thinking style that involves overestimating, exaggerating or magnifying an object or situation and predicting the worst possible outcome - when catastrophic thinking occurs, individuals experience heightened feelings of helplessness and they grossly underestimate their ability to cope with the situation

Answer 140

Refers to how people around us communicate about potentially dangerous events and objects ie verbally - 'dont touch that' and non verbally - squealing, shaking

Answer 141

refers to the process of children learning to imitate their parents' behaviours. It has a significant influence on the types of objects and events that children learn to view as threatening/ stressful

Answer 142

- focus on addressing biological, social and psychological factors - identifying and challenging cognitive distortions is a major focus along with education - behaviour that reinforces the fear and anxiety are also challenged - teaching relaxation is often used as a behavioural component

Answer 143

Sometimes used to treat specific phobias. Involves gradually exposing the patient to the feared object or situation while simultaneously practising relaxation and controlled breathing techniques to manage symptoms of panic

Answer 144

A behaviour therapy that aims to replace an anxiety response with relaxation response when an individual is exposed to a fear stimulus - type of exposure therapy - applies classical conditioning techniques - involves unlearning associated responses and reassociating feelings of anxiety with safety/ relaxation

Answer 145

Anti-anxiety medication can be used to alleviated symptoms in the short to medium term but have side effects and can produce psychological or physical dependency

Answer 146

A groups of drugs that work on the CNS, acting selectively on GABA receptors in the brain to increase GABA's inhibitory effects and make post synaptic neurons resistant to excitation - have anti-anxiety and sleeping properties - often called sedatives or depressants - can cause drowsiness or can be highly addictive

Answer 147

Psychoeducation for families and supporters

Answer 148

Exposure Therapy Systematic Desensitisation

Answer 149

Challenge unrealistic or anxious thoughts - anxious thoughts can trigger a phobic response - unrealistic thoughts can trigger anxious thoughts - families and friends can challenge these thoughts

Answer 150

Not encouraging avoidance behaviours - avoidance behaviours strengthen phobias - families/ supports must be able to recognise these behaviours and not encourage them - care should be taken ad families should not try to force sufferers to confront phobic stimulus

Answer 151

An overall feeling that colours our perception of the world and influences how we go about daily life - non-specific emotional state - involve a disabling disturbance in emotional state

Answer 152

A lasting and continuous deeply sad mood or loss of pleasure

Answer 153

elevated mood involves intense elation or irritability

Answer 154

An extremely happy or irritated mood that is not as extreme as mania

Answer 155

- talking excessively and rapidly - being easily distracted - unrealistically high opinions on oneself - obliviousness to negative consequences of one's actions

Answer 156

Major Depressive disorder Dysthymia Premenstrual dysphoric disorder Bipolar 1 disorder Bipolar 11 disorder Cyclothymia

Answer 157

- duration must persist at least two weeks - feeling sad most of the time or loss of pleasure most of the time - 4 or more symptoms occurring most days - feeling fatigued, irritable, sleep problems, loss or change of appetite, significant weight loss or gain

Answer 158

Persistent depressive disorder - similar symptoms to major depressive disorder but less severe with a longer duration (must persist for two years for this diagnosis)

Answer 159

dysfunctional changes in mood on the week before the onset of menstruation eg. mood swings, feeling suddenly sad or fearful, loss of control

Answer 160

Fluctuations between periods of major depression and mania

Answer 161

Fluctuations between periods of major depression and hypomania

Answer 162

Experience periods of manic symptoms and depressive symptoms over a period of at least two years - these periods are shorter and less severe than in bipolar disorder

Answer 163

Genes Brain Chemistry

Answer 164

Psychological responses to change Habitually negative thinking

Answer 165

Poverty Social stress Social isolation

Answer 166

- twin and adoption studies show that depression has a genetic component/ predisposition - if one parent has depression, the risk that their child will experience depression at some point is 25-30%

Answer 167

- defiency in excitatory neurotransmitters serotonin and noradrenaline is thought to lead to depression (oversupply may be underlying cause of mania) - anti-depressant drugs that inhibit the re-uptake of serotonin and noradrenaline can relieve symptoms of depression

Answer 168

- major depression is often precipitated by stressful life events that disrupt everyday life in an ongoing way - anything that causes change in daily life can contribute to the risk of developing depression - a persons response to stress is unique to the situation and involves a transaction between the person and the environment where the person decides something is stressful based on their assessment of their coping strategies

Answer 169

- depression is often perpetuated by habitually negative thoughts, which pop up automatically in response to everyday events - these negative thoughts lead to further negative thoughts - the constant stream of negative thoughts leads to negative feelings and affects behaviour

Answer 170

- poverty = lack of basic life necessities such as sufficient food, shelter, clothing and access to services such as healthcare and education - there is a strong correlation between poverty and depression but the direction of causality is unclear

Answer 171

- social stress is produced when we experience friction in our relationship with others - often a precipitating risk factor to depression especially in women - social isolation is a lack of interaction and relationship with others - people who live alone are twice as likely to have major depression than those who live with others

Answer 172

Antidepressant Medications Diet and exercise

Answer 173

- work by blocking the re-uptake of serotonin in the synapse therefore compensating for serotonin deficiency because keeps more serotonin in the synapse - Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) = ease symptoms of moderate to severe depression and are relatively safe and few side effects - serotonin is usually reabsorbed by nerve cells and SSRIs block reuptake - more serotonin avaible to pass further mesagges so increase levels can improve symptoms

Answer 174

A dietary pattern characterised by high intake of fruit, veg, whole grain, fish = associated with a decreased risk of depression A dietary pattern characterised by high consumption of red meat, refined grains, sweets, butter = associated with an increased risk of depression Careful consideration of diet = positive intervention

Answer 175

Regular exercise may alleviate symptoms of depression by: - increasing energy levels - improving sleep - distraction from worry Exercise does not need to be extremely vigorous to be helpful for depression

Answer 176

Trains the mind to focus on a single stimuli and block habitually negative thoughts Meditation = practice where an individual uses a technique such as mindfulness or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought or activity, to train attention and awareness and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state

Answer 177

Social support can help depression Social support can take many forms and might include - listing to concerns - challenging negative thinking - providing positive alternatives to negative reinforcing behaviours

Answer 178

A unique pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviour that is relatively stable across time and in different situations

Answer 179

Characterised by inflexible and maladaptive personality characteristics that interfere with functioning or cause significant personal distress

Answer 180

- an exaggerated sense of self-importance - an overwhelming need for admiration from others - a lack of empathy for or interest in others - extreme sensitivity to criticism - preoccupations with fantasies of power and success - overestimation of personal qualities and achievements

Answer 181

- ongoing impulsivity and intense fluctuations in mood, self-image and relationships with others - frequent feelings of depression, emptiness and fear of abandonment - self-damaging behaviours Most commonly diagnosed personality disorder and more common in women

Answer 182

Characterised by continual attention seeking behaviours and exaggerated expression of emotions

Answer 183

Characterised by an over-reliance on others and reluctance to take responsibility for oneself

Answer 184

Characterised by distrust and suspicion of others

Answer 185

- disregard for the rights of others and the law - irresponsibility - a lack of remorse for wrongdoing - impulsive and aggressive behaviour - shallow emotions - a lack of empathy for and loyalty towards others

Answer 186

- outside psych, people with this disorder are referred to as sociopaths or psychopaths - 1-3% of general pop diagnosed and 40-70% prison inmates diagnosed - men are 3x more likely than women to be diagnosed with APD

Answer 187

Genes Brain structures - frontal lobe and limbic system abnormalities

Answer 188

Emotional poverty

Answer 189

Family environment Social modelling

Answer 190

- twin and adoption studies suggest APD may have a genetic component - geneticists have identified 6 genes associated w development of psychopathic traits and at least 4 alleles need to be inherited to be at an increased risk of APD

Answer 191

- APD = associated w reduced frontal lobe activity - lack of activity in orbital cortex = associated w psychopathic traits - may be result of genetic preprogramming/ injury - reduced limbic system activity = thought to be responsible for the lack of fear of punishment and shallow emotions typical of people w APD

Answer 192

Emotional Poverty = describes the typical reduced depth of feelings experienced by people w APD - leads to lack of empathy = the ability to imagine the emotions of others - men w APD scored badly on test requiring them to recognise the emotions of others (in particular fear)

Answer 193

- inadequate supervision, abuse, neglect, harsh and inconsistent discipline and are common in the family backgrounds of people diagnosed with APD

Answer 194

Children learn antisocial behaviours from parents

Answer 195

- no 'cures' for personality disorders and treatments for adults are not often effective - many people w personality disorders experiences co-occurring mental disorders that can be treated (ie addiction disorders) - treatment for children and adolescents who exhibit symptoms of 'conduct disorder' work by using positive reinforcement to encourage normal behaviour

Answer 196

A condition in which a person experiences a loss of contact with reality

Answer 197

Characterised by symptoms of delusion, hallucination and disorganised thinking

Answer 198

Experiences and behaviours that have been added to a person's normal way of functioning eg. hallucinations

Answer 199

Take something away from a person's normal way of functioning eg. loss of motivation

Answer 200

Hallucinations Delusions Disorganised thinking

Answer 201

Fixed false beliefs that are held with absolute certainty, even in the face of contradictor factual evidence

Answer 202

Persecution: Everyone is out to get me Reference: Someone powerful is sending me secret messages Control: Some is controlling what I say and do Grandeur: I'm a very special and important person

Answer 203

A perceptual experience during which the individual sees, hears, smells, feels or tastes something that is not actually present in reality - auditory hallucinations = can be experienced as happening through the ears or directly into the mind or coming through another part of body - make it difficult to concentrate on external events

Answer 204

Disorganised speech reflects disorganised thinking in which thoughts are disconnected and jumbled - Derailment = occurs when patients suddenly switch from talking about one topic to a completely unrelated topic - Tangentiality = occurs when answers to questions are vaguely related or completely unrelated

Answer 205

The behaviour of people with psychotic disorders often seem unusual, inappropriate, purposeless or erratic - may not be able to carry out basic functions like personal hygiene - may act socially inappropriate ways, such as talking to themselves loudly or shouting/swearing

Answer 206

Refers to the reduced responsivity to external events and often involves unusual motor behaviour - Catatonic negativism = reduced responsiveness to instructions - Catatonic mutism = lack of verbal responsiveness - Catatonic stupor = lack of motor responsiveness - Catatonic excitement = purposeless and excessive motor activity

Answer 207

Catonia Affective Flattening Avolition Alogia Anhedoma

Answer 208

Affective Functioning = a reduction in the intensity of emotional expression (eye contact, facial expressions) Avolition = a decrease in self-initiated purposeful activities Alogia = a reduction in the content and fluency of speech Anhedomia = decreased ability to experience pleasure from normally enjoyable activities

Answer 209

Schizophrenia Delusional disorder Brief psychotic disorder Schizoaffective disorder Substance/ medicine-induced psychotic disorder

Answer 210

Characterised by persistent symptoms of psychosis. TO be diagnosed, symptoms must persist for at least 6 weeks

Answer 211

Characterised by persistent delusions

Answer 212

Characterised by one or more symptoms of psychosis that is experienced for between one day and one month before symptoms disappear

Answer 213

Genes Brain structures

Answer 214

Stress Cognitive impairments

Answer 215

Family environment

Answer 216

- numerous studies have found that schizophrenia tends to run in families - more closely individuals are related to someone with schizophrenia leads to a greater chance of developing schizophrenia - no single gene is responsible for increased risk of schizophrenia

Answer 217

- reduced activity in prefrontal cortex - lower amounts of grey matter in frontal, parietal and temporal lobes - enlarged ventricles in the cerebral cortex - fluid filled spaces increase as nearby neurons degenerate - small hippocampus and amygdala

Answer 218

- stress = a person judges that a situation is beyond their capacity to cope - can be a precipitating risk factor for the onset of Schizophrenia in people who already have predisposing risk factors - people with Schizophrenia = tend to be more reactive and psychologically affected under stress than the general population

Answer 219

Proposes that all people have some level of vulnerability for any given mental disorder and the risk of developing the disorder varies in relation to the combined effect of a number of stresses

Answer 220

- jumping to conclusions on the basis of inadequate or ambiguous info can lead to the formation of delusions - working memory (processes info we are consciously thinking about) = is slower and has a lower capacity - episodic memory (stores long term memories of personal experiences) = deficient and can lead to a loss of personal identity

Answer 221

- a cognitive problem that can contribute to the development and progression of mental disorders

Answer 222

Involves a goal-directed thinking in which inferences are made or conclusions are drawn from known or assumed facts

Answer 223

Involves making judgements related to the probability, more specifically, the likelihood of something happening or being true - schizophrenics = often have impaired probabilistic reasoning - find it difficult to interpret social situations which leads to the development and persistence of delusions

Answer 224

psychiatrist Pekka Tienari = conducted a 40year longitudinal study of adopted children whose biological mothers had Schizophrenia - children with a genetic predisposition to Schizophrenia = at a much higher risk if raised in a psychologically unhealthy environment - children whose biological mothers had Schizophrenia but were raised in psychologically healthy families had a similar risk of developing Schizophrenia as the control group

Answer 225

Proposes that Schizophrenia is caused by two sequential events 1. A biological vulnerability eg inheritance of genes associated with Schizophrenia or infection that disrupts normal brain development in utero 2. A major stressful life event eg a dysfunctional family environment, abuse or trauma

Answer 226

Anti-psychotic medications = can relieve symptoms of disorganised thinking, delusions and hallucinations but side effects include nausea, muscle spasms, weight gain etc Cognitive Behavioural therapy = complement meds and help people recognise and change patterns of irrational thinking and teach strategies to help cope with impaired memory Social Support Programs = can help people find work and accommodation and reduce stress related to poverty and stigma