Developmental and Social Psychology Flashcards
Need to belong theory
people have an innate motivational drive to form and maintain interpersonal bonds with other people
Satiation
the satisfaction of a desire or need
Social Identity theory
Social identity is the portion of an individual’s self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group
Social and Personal identities
Social identity refers to people’s self categorisation in relation to their group membership and personal identity refers to the unique ways that people define themselves as individuals
In-groups and out-groups
An in-group is a group to whom you belong to and anyone else outside of the group is perceived as being in the out-group
Group prototypes
the identity of a group is captured in prototypical members who are perceived to embody the characteristics that define the group
Sense of belonging
The subjective feeling of deep connection with social groups, physical places, and individual and collective experiences
The social cure
capable of promoting adjustment, coping and well-being for individuals dealing with a range of illnesses, injuries, trauma and stressors through social connection
Social prescribing
An approach in health care that connects people to activities, groups, and services in their community to meet the practical social and emotional needs that affect their health and well-being.
Non-verbal communication
Thoughts and feels are sent and received, without using words
Forced choice paradigm
A format for question responses that requires respondents to provide an answer, usually from a selection of possible answers.
Free choice paradigm
A format for question responses that does not require respondents to provide an answer, but rather to freely generate it themselves. E.g. asking patients to generate an emotion themselves instead of looking at pictures and choosing one.
Discrete emotion theory
Theory of emotion that assumes a small set of discrete emotions.
Dimensional emotion
An emotion can be represented by a specific position within the continuous space that is defined by a small number of underlying dimensions.
Encoding
Expressing/emitting non-verbal behaviour
Decoding
Interpreting the meaning of non-verbal behaviour
Cultural display rules
Cultural norms learned early in life that govern the regulation of expressive behaviours depending on social contexts.
Affiliation
Tendency to form social bonds with others
Ostracism
the exclusion of someone from society or a group
Privacy Regulation Theory (Irwin Altman, 1975)
The need for privacy regulates over time, and people need different amount of social interaction in different situations
Dunbar number
A suggested cognitive limit to the number of people with whom one can maintain stable social relationships with
Reciprocity
A social norm of responding to a positive action with another positive action
Determinants of attractiveness
Physical attractiveness, Similarity to self, reciprocity, proximity
Determinants of physical attractiveness
Dimorphism, Symmetry and Averageness
Dimorphism
the gradient of masculine and feminine traits
Temporal Need-Threat Model
Reaction to ostracism in three stages:
1. reflexive
2. reflective
3. resignation
Nature
The hereditary information present at the moment of conception that may affect later development
Nurture
All the external elements that may influence development
Stability
Individuals who are high or low in a characteristic will remain so at later ages (emphasis on nature)
Plasticity
change is possible and likely if new experiences support it
Continuous development
stable, consistent growth, i.e. Plant growth
Discontinuous development
growth takes place in stages, such as in butterfly development (caterpillar -> chrysalis -> butterfly)
active development
sees children as active participants in their environment and that they will affect their development themselves significantly
passive development
Sees children as helpless to their environment
Critical period
Significant brain development can happen if the necessary experience is available. If not, development in that area becomes difficult or perhaps impossible
Sensitive period
a phase of time during which brain development happens more easily, but can still occur later
Involuntary responses
Developmental psychologists can study very young children and babies by observing or measuring their involuntary responses, such as gaze, heart rate or brain activity through ERPs
Voluntary responses
As children develop more motor control and independence, researchers can study their behavioural choces
Gillick competence / Age of Legal Capacity (Scotland) Act
Children under the age of 16 can consent to their own treatment if they’re believed to have enough intelligence, competence and understanding to fully appreciate what’s involved in their treatment.
Sensorimotor Stage
Birth to 2 years
World experienced through senses and actions
significant achievements: development of means end behaviour, child’s gradual separation of self from external environment, object permanence
End of stage: onset of deferred imitation
Deferred imitation
the process in which an individual observes an action and then performs that action at a later time
Preoperational Stage
2 - 7 years
Use words and images to represent things -> semiotic functions
Egocentric, are unable to separate their own perspective from that of others
lack logical reasoning
Concrete Operational Stage
7 - 12 years
Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations
Able to solve conservation tasks
Conservation task
to test a child’s ability to see that some properties are conserved or invariant after an object undergoes physical transformation
Formal Operational Stage
12+ years
Formal operations, utilise abstract reasoning, moral reasoning
Schemes
Basic mental structures, coordinated and systematic pattern of action or way of reasoning, means of interacting with environment
Assimilation
Process of interpreting an experience in terms of current ways of thinking
Accommodation
Modifications in behaviour and thinking that occur when old schemes no longer fit
Equilibration
Innate self regulatory process that, through assimilation and accommodation, result in more organised, powerful and complex schemes for adapting to the environment
Maturation
the gradual unfolding over time of genetic programmes for development
Zone of proximal development
Vygotsky’s concept in educational psychology
represents the space between what a learner is capable of doing unsupported and what the learner cannot do even with support
Scaffolding
the help that teachers/caretakers provide in the zone of proximal development
Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
proposed by Bowlby
A lack of attachment relationship leads to ongoing relationship difficulties, behavioural and emotional problems
Bowlby’s central conclusion:
“What is believed to be essential for mental health is that an infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment” (1953)
Monotropy
Infants are born with the innate need to create one main and special bond with their attachment figure
Secure base (security theory)
A secure place for a child leads to confidence in exploration
Caretaker allows child to maintain a balance between closeness and exploration
The strange situation
8 Stages:
1. Mother and baby in playroom
2. The child is encouraged to explore
3. Stranger enters
4. Mother leaves
5. Mother returns
6. Both adults leave
7. Stranger returns
8. Mother returns
-> used for categorisation of the quality of attachment
Secure attachment
Infant plays with the toys and potentially interacts with the stranger while mother is present, may show distress when mother leaves but is quite easily comforted by her when she returns
- associated with sensitive care giving, responsive to infant’s needs
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
Infant tends to be distant and aloof in mother’s presence, emotionless, superficial play, on return, infant will ignore mother
- Associated with impatient, unresponsive or intrusive care giving
Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment
Infant adapts poorly to strange environment and is very distressed when the mother leaves and is difficult to comfort on return. Minimal or no interaction with the stranger and is associated with inconsistent care giving
Insecure-Disorganised Attachment
No organised, observable way of dealing with stress, inconsistent behaviours and tendency to be wary of mother. Associated with frightening or fearful caregiving, but highly complex
Resilience
Normal development under difficult conditions
Alloparenting
Care provided by individuals other than parents
Basic psychological needs theory
three psychological needs that are universally important for psychological wellbeing and autonomous motivation:
Autonomy, competence and relatedness
Relationships motivation theory
Focus on mutually autonomy-supportive nature of close relationships
Galinsky’s 6 Stages of parenthood
Image-making (planning and pregnancy)
Nurturing (birth - 2 years)
Authority (toddler/pre-school)
Interpretive (school)
Interdependent (adolescence)
Departure (moving away)
Authoritative Parenting style
high responsiveness, high demandingness
encourage independence of children within limits, expect age-appropriate behaviour and use reasonable and fair punishment for misbehaviour
-> successful parenting style
Permissive Parenting Style
high responsiveness, low demandingness
nurturing and accepting of child, low expectations for child’s behaviour and achievements, avoid discipline
-> children tend to be immature, impulsive, short tempered, unaccustomed to rules, and insensitive to others
Authoritarian Parenting style
low responsiveness, high demandingness
restrictive, controlling, children are expected to follow rules without explanation or feedback
-> tend to be low in self-esteem , anxious in unfamiliar situations, underdeveloped/external focused morality
Disengaged Parenting Style
low responsiveness, low demandingness
emotionally unsupportive, low in warmth, uninvolved
-> children tend to be emotionally withdrawn in social situations, attempt to provide for themselves, lack internal sense of discipline
Determinants of Parenting Behaviour Model
Belsky 1984, influences on parenting:
Parent characteristics (personality, age, knowledge on child development)
Child characteristics (temperament, birth order, gender)
=> bidirectional (affect each other)
contextual factors (financial situation, school, religion, politics, support, autonomy in childbearing situation, stress)
Synaptic Pruning
A very complex filing system being completely reviewed and tidied up, occurs during puberty, creates more differentiated, specialised brain
Myelin Formation
A thickening of the myelin which allows messages to travel around the brain more quickly and efficiently, integrates the brain more efficiently
Hormonal brain changes in puberty
more cortisol: worry, stress, anxiety
more varying serotonin: risk of low mood
increased dopamine: sensitivity to rewards, risk taking
melatonin: released later at night for adolescents than adults -> social jet lag
De-idealisation
process of individuation, in which children gain more autonomy and start de idealise their parents
