13.3 Development Of International Tourism Flashcards
1
Q
Development of tourism post pandemic
A
- global tourism suffered its worst year on record in 2020 = international arrivals dropped by 74%
- destinations worldwide welcomed 1 billion fewer international arrivals
- estimated loss of USD 1.3 trillion in export revenue
- put between 100 to 120 million direct tourism jobs at risk
2
Q
Economic reasons for growth in tourism
A
- greater affluence = smaller families, payed holidays
- improved exchange rates = strengthening pound reduces cost of holidays
- greater mobility due to transport + development = cheaper airlines, car ownership
3
Q
Social reasons for growth in tourism
A
- more leisure time
- better communication + technology = growth of social media
- package holidays
4
Q
Political reasons for growth in tourism
A
- relaxation of boundaries = govts in LICs welcome FDI from international hotel chains, stimulates investment into tourism facilities in LICs
- govts have invested heavily in tourism
5
Q
Examples of external shocks
A
- natural disasters e.g. earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods
- terrorism = deters visitors from going to certain countries in the short term at least
- exchange rates fluctuations = sept 2022 the pound fell to a record low against the dollar
6
Q
Impact of Covid on tourism in Cornwall
A
- tourism is by far cornwalls largest economic sector
- during usual peak tourist season in July + august 2020 unemployment totals increased by 1.5 times compared to 2019
- many pubs, restaurants + cafes were forced to reduce the number of tables because of social distancing + therefore took fewer staff
7
Q
Over tourism in Spain (negatives)
A
- third of people in Spain say their local area now has too many international visitors
- in Barcelona, the 1.6 million residents receive about 32 million visitors annually
- short term holiday rentals sector accused of removing accommodation from local residential markets + inflating rent to a point locals can’t afford
8
Q
Over tourism in Spain (positives)
A
- vital revenue + job generation by international visitors
- there is a need to control tourist numbers to create a balance between the profitability of tourism + the quality of life of residents
9
Q
How have the Spanish government responded to overtourism?
A
- pledged to check that listings on platforms e.g. Airbnb + booking.com had licences
- Barcelona city council aims to ban all holiday flats by 2029
10
Q
Strategies for overtourism
A
- regulating or reducing visitor numbers by boost tourist taxes
- introducing entrance fees, time slot system
- launching mass information campaigns aimed at reducing visitor numbers
- book in advance to get admission to popular sites e.g. Rome’s colosseum
11
Q
What impacts of tourism does the Doxy’s index of irritation show?
A
- stage 1 = euphoria = enthusiasm for tourism, opportunities for locals, flows of money
- stage 2 = apathy = industry expands, tourists taken for granted, more interest in profit making
- stage 3 = irritation = industry nearing saturation point, expansion of facilities required, encroachment on ways of life
- stage 4 = antagonism = irritations more overt, tourism viewed negatively
- stage 5 = financial level = reached saturation point, environment has changed irreversibly
12
Q
Negative social + cultural impacts of tourism
A
- loss of housing for local people due to holiday rental properties + second homes in popular tourist areas —> can also increase property prices + rent e.g. Barcelona
- loss of locally owned land as tourism companies buy up large areas in the most scenic + accessible location = decreased environmental value from increased large hotels + resorts = locals may be displaced for developments
- long term protest against tourism in Goa highlighted how one five star hotel consumes as much water as five local villages + the average hotel resident using 28 times more electricity per day than a local
13
Q
Positive social + cultural impacts
A
- increased range of social facilities for local people
- lead to greater understanding between people of different cultures
- can help develop foreign-language skills in host communities
14
Q
Negative economic impacts
A
- economic leakages e.g. payments to foreign owners of hotels or remittances sent home by foreign workers
- money spent on tourism not directly impacting the local population = locals not seeing the benefits of tourism
- leads to irritation/antagonism of locals towards tourism
- e.g. Gambia
15
Q
Tourism in Gambia
A
- relies heavily on tourism = source of 20% of its GDP + 1 in 7 have jobs related to tourism
- many of the hotels in main tourist areas (e.g. Koloi + Kotu) are owned by international tourist chains like TUI = hotel manager + top jobs go to foreign workers = salaries paid back into banks back home
- many of the other jobs in the hotels are unskilled + poorly paid = earnings averaged £46 a month in 2004
- much of the food + drink consumed in hotels imported from Europe instead of buying from local farmers
16
Q
Positive economic impacts
A
- multiplier effect/cumulative causation
- establishment of hotels + tourist facilities provides job opportunities + encourages increased inflow of investment to meet local demand
- substantial rise in per person incomes = higher tax base = increased govt spending power
- improvements of physical + cultural infrastructure
17
Q
Negative environmental impacts
A
- overuse of natural resources e.g. overuse of water for hotels, swimming pools, golf course + personal use by guests = results in water shortages + degradation of water supplies
- golf tourism has increased in popularity + construction + use of golf courses depletes fresh water sources with them requiring an enormous amount of water every day
- deforestation caused by land clearance for tourist developments e.g. in Nepal each tourist on trekking vacations can consume up to 5 kg of firewood per day
- improper waste disposal e.g. cruise ships in the Caribbean are estimated to produce 70,000 tonnes of waste each year + 85% of sewage discharged into the Caribbean is untreated = polluted seas
18
Q
What is sustainable tourism?
A
- tourism that operate within capacities for the regeneration + future productivity of natural resources
- recognises the contribution of local people + their cultures
- accept that these people must have an equitable share in the economic benefits of tourism
- tourism is guided by the wishes of local people + communities in the destination area
19
Q
Impact of tourism in the Lake District
A
- footpath erosion = 10 million people walk on the paths each year + modern walking boots actively remove material from the surface + trample plants = loss of biodiversity
- holiday home ownership = 17% of houses are second homes/holiday homes (51% in Coniston + 80% in Eltwater) = increases prices of houses beyond local reach = average incomes £26,899 + average house price £254,744
- traffic congestion = 89% of visitors arrive by car - towns + villages constructed before mass car ownership so there is a parking problem = people forced to park on verges, narrowing the road = congestion + highly polluting
20
Q
How are in the impacts of tourism managed in the Lake District?
A
- footpath erosion = managed by ‘Fix the Fells’ who repair paths by stone pitching (stones dug into centre of path to create staircase) or soil inversion (digging drainage ditches at the side of the path + soil is used to create walking surface)
- holiday home ownership = local occupancy clauses on residential properties (buyer has to prove they will work + live in the area) = reduces number of buyers + prices fall
- traffic congestion = spent £6.9 m on creating an additional 50 mile cycle way to encourage more cycling, 5 new bus services which carried an additional 20,000 in 2014, electric car hires
21
Q
What is carrying capacity?
A
the number of tourists a destination can take without placing too much pressure on local resources + infrastructure
22
Q
What are the elements of carrying capacity?
A
- physical = overall impact on physical environment e.g. footpath erosion in Lake District
- ecological = number of tourists that can be accommodate without significant impact on the ecosystem
- economic = number of tourists a destination can take without adverse economic impacts
- perceptual = attitudes of local people in terms of how they view increasing tourist numbers
23
Q
What is niche tourism?
A
- specific + specialised
24
Q
What is ecotourism?
A
- specialised tourism involving untouched natural environment experience
- usually small scale
25
Why has there been an increase in new types of tourism
- environmental degradation from mass tourism e.g. beach resorts
- tourism life cycle = stagnation + decline (butler model)
- interest in sustainable tourism e.g. ecotourism
- desire for something new + different = growing interest in activity holidays
26
Ecotourism in Ecuador
- seventh most important source of foreign exchange + 5.3% GDP = provides employment in areas with few opportunities
- on average 6000 tourists visit annually + 80% of them are foreign nationals
- cuyabeno wildlife reserve —> second largest national park in Ecuador where visitors stay in a floating hotel or purpose-built lodges, rainforest excursions led by guides from local tribes
- visits are made to replicas of local tribe villages = ensures privacy as real villages are located deeper in the rainforest
27
Ecotourism in the Galápagos Islands
- an area equivalent to 97.5% of the Galápagos Islands became Ecuador’s first national park
- islands used to sparsely populated = 1950 only 1000 people loved on the islands but now there is an excess of 26000 people
- number is expanded by ecotourists which number 109000 in 2004 + now over 180000
- each tourist pays a levy of $100 which was introduced by the Ecuadorean govt to assist with the conservation + sustainable development of the islands
28
Issues of sustainability in Ecuador + the Galápagos Islands
- Ecuador = keen to avoid excessive tourism = marketed on exclusivity + quality = on average costs £5000 per person without flights
- Galápagos Islands = influx of tourists (grew from 109000 in 2004 to 180000) + early settlers brought domestic animals (goats + rats) = disrupted environment + threatened native species
29
What is the butler model?
- also known as life cycle model
- shows the development of a tourist destination over time as the number of tourists increases
30
What are the stages of the butler model?
- exploration = very small tourist numbers, few facilities, local control, discovery tourism
- involvement = small numbers of tourists, local facilities, regional investment, some changes apparent
- development = numbers rising rapidly, increasingly non-local run facilities, major change, national/international control
- consolidation = maximum number of tourists, peak number of facilities, all levels of investment + control
- stagnation = numbers reached peak (carrying capacity), widely developed, ageing tourist facilities
- rejuvenation = numbers rise again, some new facilities, refurbishment, new investment OR decline = lower numbers, some facilities taken over by local people, increasing local control
31
Parallels between the doxy index + butler model
- both models represent the stages of development for tourism +nits impacts as it progresses to a breaking point
- the stages in both models begin with minimal, small-scale tourism = ‘euphoria’ in the doxy index to reflect the social + cultural impacts + ‘exploration’ + ‘involvement’ in butler model
- on the other end of the scale is the saturation point for doxy index, corresponding with stagnation for butler model as carrying capacity of the destination has been reached
32
Butler model + Mallorca
- 1960 = Mallorca experienced small-scale discovery stage = received less than half a million tourists per year + employment was dominated by the primary sector (e.g. fishing + agriculture)
- 1970 = rapid increase of tourists to 3 million, became an ideal package holiday due to construction of large hotels, shift in local employment from agriculture to tourist related jobs (e.g. construction workers + hotel employees) = growth + development stage
- 1980s = consolidation stage = tourist numbers at 7.5 million + 70% of population worked in tourism, economic dominance
- 1990s = decline caused by carrying capacity being exceeded = quality of location lowering, no longer an appealing holiday for families with resorts like Maguluf getting a bad rep for looking run down, unemployment rose by 30%
- 2000s = rejuvenation = upmarket hotels built in effort to attract different clientele e.g. families + retirees, tourist numbers reached over 9 million in 2013 compared to 6 million in 2008 recession
33
Butler model + Benidorm
- 1960s = holiday for the wealthy, exclusive + high quality = lower stage of butler model (involvement) due to minimal new hotels
- 1980s = biggest Spanish resort reaching peak of 12 mil per year = consolidation as tourist numbers at peak + non-locally run businesses dominate the economy
- cheap bars + nightlife attracted low income holiday makers
- experiencing economic leakages since TNCs were receiving the income of chain hotels rather than local communities
34
Butler model + Jamaica
- the butler model is useful to Jamaica as a predictive tool = as an upcoming tourist destination they have witnessed destinations such as Mallorca go through the stages + are able to avoid stagnation + decline
-
35
Butler model + Ecuador
- butler model isn’t applicable to ecotourism which is usually marketed on exclusivity + heavy govt sustainable management - therefore the destination (e.g. Ecuador) doesn’t rapidly develop through the stages of the model
- the govt isn’t encourage mass tourism seen through the $100 levy
- the growth of the tourist industry strongly involves locals = promotes social sustainability
- however - population is doubling every 11 years + growth in tourist numbers reflects elements of the butler model BUT it is still heavily exclusive + tourist numbers are limited to ensure the conservation of the islands
36
Limitations of the butler model
- doesn’t apply to other forms of tourism e.g. ecotourism
- doesn’t account for short term fluctuations caused by external shocks e.g. India 2004 tsunami caused 227,898 deaths = led to a massive decrease in tourist numbers due to perceived risk of the area
