Development in childhood

Question 1

What period do we consider as being childhood?

Answer 1

Between early childhood and adolescence i.e. 4-11 years

Question 2

How did Dempster examine the development of memory span?

Answer 2

Examined number of items able to be recalled from a list (digit span)
2yr - remember 2-3 items
4yr - remember 4 items
10yr - remember 6 items (adults ~7)
So digit span more than doubles during this period

Question 3

What is an explanation for the increasing digit span?

Answer 3

ABSOLUTE capacity of STM may increase but more likely the EFFECTIVE capacity increases i.e. older children are simply more efficient
They process info more quickly in general (slow reciting in younger children means memories fade more); they are more familiar with numbers (higher efficiency and effectiveness of encoding systems), and are able to utilise memory strategies

Question 4

So what is likely with respect to cognitive development of memory span during childhood?

Answer 4

Processing speed increases with increasing age rather than formation of any new units in the memory

Question 5

What are memory strategies and how do they develop?

Answer 5

Deliberate mental or behavioural activities used to aid remembering
Some strategies observed before 2years, and spontaneous use of strategies increases with age

Question 6

How did DeLoache et al investigate memory strategies?

Answer 6

Hid a doll under one of several different objects and child had to wait several mins before retrieving it
2 year olds used strategies of pointing/naming objects to aid memory i.e. simple behavioural strategies

Question 7

How did Wellman et al investigate memory strategies?

Answer 7

Hid object under one of 3 identical cups
3yr olds - watching, naming, pointing to correct cup (2yr olds did not)
2 yr olds could be taught this strategy and following teaching were more likely to apply it (not generalised to outside scenarios however - younger children seem to work best with familiarity)

Question 8

What are the 2 key memory strategies used by older children?

Answer 8

Rehearsal - repetition (vocally or subvocally); thought to begin around 5yrs inconsistently and becomes more consistent and less effortful with increasing age; 5 yr olds can rehearse if taught, and performance subsequently improves
Organisation - Grouping items into categories to aid remembering; 5 year olds less likely than 10yr olds to use this, and when they do start using it they do so inconsistently; struggle to generalise strategy outside of immediate context

Question 9

How did Chi study development of knowledge?

Answer 9

Compared 10-yr old chess experts with adult chess novices
Shown chess positions and asked to reconstruct them (digit span also assessed)
Adults outperformed kids on digit span, but kids outperformed on chess task - knowledge outweighed disadvantages in relative unsophistication of cognitive equipment

Question 10

What did Schneider find with respect to knowledge in children?

Answer 10

When adult and child chess experts compared they performed equally i.e. child’s cognitive limitations are unimportant when knowledge is available

Question 11

What are the stages in development of a self-identity?

Answer 11

First evidence occurs around 15-18 months but becomes more sophisticated with age:
EARLY CHILDHOOD - Simple (“I am” e.g. good, bad etc), inconsistent (self view changes with circumstances), concrete (based on appearance) and absolute (no comparisons with others)
CHILDHOOD - Differentiated (good at X but bad at Y), consistent (awareness of underlying dispositions independent of circumstances), abstract (~7yrs - abstract psych characteristics e.g. lonely), comparative

Question 12

What are the 3 stages in development of gender understanding during childhood?

Answer 12

2 years - identify gender identity i.e. diff between male/female
3-4 years - understand that gender won’t change during lifetime (gender stability)
6-7 years - gender constancy i.e. gender doesn’t depend on situation

This 3-stage process is culturally universal and involves increasing ability to take broader perspectives (reflects developing cognitive abilities and a well-established self-concept)

Question 13

What did Ellis, Rogoff and Cromer observe with respect to social development of peer relationships?

Answer 13

By age 2-3 most time was spent with fellow children rather than adults
Important in terms of interactions and age-appropriate knowledge exposed to etc

Question 14

Why is starting school so important for social development?

Answer 14

Opportunities for peer relationships increases - promotes development of both social and verbal skills
Also allows children to select peers with whom interaction seems most beneficial

Question 15

What did Kindermann study with respect to how children seek out like-minded individuals?

Answer 15

At start of a school year a cohort of 9-10 year olds were grouped according to academic motivation
By end of year group memberships had changed but groupings by motivational level remained the same i.e. individuals within the groups changed but groups themselves didn’t
Thought to be due to social understanding and also understanding of self in order to identify SIMILAR individuals

Question 16

What is an important facet of peer relationships in childhood?

Answer 16

Peer group acceptance - most commonly measured by asking children to rate how much they would like to play with each of several other children
Different children are more accepting than others

Question 17

What were the 3 levels of acceptance identified by Dodge et al?

Answer 17

Popular - Children generally happy, attractive, cooperative
Rejected - generally disruptive, argumentative and uncooperative
Neglected - generally shy, not assertive and solitary

Question 18

What has peer group rejection been linked to?

Answer 18

Social maladjustment (behaviours such as truancy, school drop-outs and police incidents) in later life  - is this causal or just correlation, is it the rejection that is the cause of maybe something to do with lack of opportunities for social skills development during childhood? Aggression has been found to be a better predictor of maladjustment
It is now generally agreed that there is evidence for both

Question 19

What two theories have been established for the causes of later life maladjustment?

Answer 19

CAUSAL - Rejection as a good predictor of relationship problems in later life; deviant behaviours such as aggression and withdrawal lead to low acceptance in childhood, which leads to deviant socialisation and maladjusted outcomes are the result
INCIDENTAL - Underlying characteristics e.g. family problems, low IQ etc contribute to displays of deviant behaviour and thus low acceptance. The deviant behaviours also lead to lack of progress through school, unemployment and other undesirable outcomes

Question 20

What is meant by moral development?

Answer 20

End product of socialisation is an individual who can distinguish right from wrong and is prepared to act accordingly - cognitive understanding combined with emotional drive
Determines whether someone acts prosocially or antisocially - socially adjusted person will uphold social order because compelled by morality rather than fear of punishment

Question 21

What was Piaget’s process in developing his theory of moral development?

Answer 21

Using clinical interviews he asked children questions about game rules and interpretations of story pairs
Asked different ages to chart progression
MARBLES GAME - where did the rules come from and should everyone obey them
STORY PAIRS - one story involved a lot of damage done by accident and other involved little damage deliberately; children asked which was naughtier

Question 22

What are the 3 stages in Piaget’s theory of moral development?

Answer 22

PREMORAL - Up to 4 yrs, no understanding of right/wrong or rules (make up rules as go along), and random choice in story test
MORAL REALISM (heterogenous morality) - 4-10 years, actions judged by objective damage without accounting for intention, rules made by authority and are inflexible, right and wrong determined by rules alone
MORAL SUBJECTIVISM (autonomous morality) - 10+ years, actions judged more by intention, rules as arbitrary agreements which can change, right and wrong determined by moral principles, well-formed concepts of fairness and justice

Question 23

What are 2 criticisms of Piaget’s theory?

Answer 23

Story pairs long and complex - too complex for younger children, and not relevant to their own experiences
Assumes no further moral development after middle childhood

Question 24

How did Kohlberg extend and refine Piaget’s work?

Answer 24

Assessed subject’s responses to moral dilemmas through interviews e.g. should a man steal a drug if it is to save his dying wife?
Examined justification given for answers (no right or wrong answers)

Question 25

What are Kohlberg’s 3 broad levels?

Answer 25

PRECONVENTIONAL (up to 9yrs) - don’t judge morality as social conventions, and morality considered in relation to obeying authority (similar to moral realism)
CONVENTIONAL (adolescents/adults) - judge morality as social conventions, with judgements based on intention rather than outcome (moral subjectivism), and actions judged according to rules in social group
PRINCIPLED (0-15% of over-20s) - judge morality in terms of general principles, more sophisticated and incorporating aspects such as human rights; accept societal laws but give preference to fundamental ethical principles

Question 26

What are some criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory?

Answer 26

Complex dilemmas again - exceed capacity of younger individuals?
Focus on justice and fairness i.e. wrongdoings, not PROSOCIAL behaviour (is morality only based on justice and fairness? What about concern for others?) - too much focus on objective and cognitive development, not addressing the emotional side