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Genes, Evolution and Development > Development > Flashcards

Development Flashcards

1
Q

What is developmental biology? (4)

A
  • the study of how a fertilised egg becomes an adult organism
  • how an adult organism reproduces
  • how an organism ages and dies
  • how an organism repairs and replaces cells and tissues after damage/under normal conditions
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2
Q

why does the study of development matter?

A
  • better understanding of congenital birth defects
  • leads to new and more effective treatments for human diseases (regenerative medicine)
  • evolutionary development (better understanding of evolution)
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3
Q

what has allowed us to study developmental biology?

A

model organisms

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4
Q

what are the 2 types of model organisms?

A
  • protosomes

- deuterostomes

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5
Q

what does proto mean?

A

first (greek)

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6
Q

what does deutero mean?

A

second (greek)

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7
Q

what does stoma mean?

A

mouth (greek)

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8
Q

what’s a protostome?

A

organism in which the mouth forms first

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9
Q

what’s a deuterostome?

A

organism in which the mouth forms second

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10
Q

by which name is arabidosis thaliana better known?

A

thale cress

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11
Q

give 3 benefits of the use of arabidosis thaliana

A 
small
easy to grow
short generation time (genetics)
embryology 
good imaging
sequenced genome
transgenic plants can be made using agrobacterium
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12
Q

by what name is dictyostelium discoideum better known?

A

slime mould

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13
Q

is slime mould a proto or deuterostome?

A

proto

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14
Q

give 3 benefits of the use of dictyostelium discoideum

A 
multicellular
chemotaxis
genetics
sequenced genome
transgenesis
social behaviour (altruism)
looks/behaves similarly to phagocytes
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15
Q

are hydra proto or deueterostomes?

A

proto

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16
Q

what are 3 benefits of the use of hydra?

A
  • radial symmetry
  • diploblastic (double bud- endo and ectoderm)
  • small
    easy to grow
    sexual and asexual reproduction
    high regenerative capacity
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17
Q

what are Planaria better known as?

A

flatworm

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18
Q

are flatworms proto or deuterostomes?

A

proto

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19
Q

give 3 benefits to using flatworms

A

adult stem cells- regenerative capacity
sexual and asexual reproduction
triploblastic- endo, ecto and mesoderm

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20
Q

by what name are caenorhabditis elegans better known?

A

round worm

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21
Q

are round worms proto or deuterostomes?

A

proto

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22
Q

give 3 benefits of using round worms

A 
- have few cells
short generation time
2 sexes
genetics and transgenics 
study of ageing- short lifespan
RNA knockout technology
sequenced genome
lineage of cells known 
imaging
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23
Q

by what name are drosophila melanogaster better known?

A

fruit flies

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24
Q

are fruit flies proto or deuterostomes?

A

proto

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25
Q

give 3 benefits of using fruit flies

A 
short generation time
genetics
transgenesis
sequenced genome
imagery
segmental
athropod
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26
Q

by what name are parhyale hawaiensis better known?

A

amphipod crustacean

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27
Q

are amphipod crustaceans proto or deuterosomes?

A

proto

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28
Q

give 3 benefits of using amphipod crustaceans

A 
- athropods
short generation time
genetics
sequenced gemone
high regenerative capacity
transgenesis
transparent
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29
Q

by what name are stronglyocentrotus purpuratus better known?

A

sea urchins

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30
Q

are sea urchins proto or deuterostomes?

A

deutero

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31
Q

give 3 benefits of using sea urchins

A 
-imaging
produces many eggs
transparent embryos
injection of nucleic acids
basal deuterostome
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32
Q

by what name are ciona intestinalis better known?

A

sea vase

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33
Q

are sea vases proto or deuterostomes?

A

deutero

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34
Q

give 3 benefits of the use of sea vases

A 
transgenesis
genetics
sequenced genome
imaging
basal chordate 
spinal cord
inverterbrae
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35
Q

are brachiostoma lanceolatum proto or deuterostomes?

A

deutero

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36
Q

give 3 benefits of using brachiostoma lanceolatum

A

sequenced genome
invertebrate
basal chordate

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37
Q

by what name are danio rerio better known?

A

zebrafish

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38
Q

are zebrafish proto or deuterostomes?

A

deutero

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39
Q

give 3 benefits of zebrafish

A 
genetics
sequenced genome transgenesis 
imaging 
regulation capacity 
external development 
vertebrate
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40
Q

are frog embryos proto or deuterostomes?

A

deuterostomes

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41
Q

give 3 benefits of using frog embryos

A 
embryology 
generated in large numbers
transparent tadpoles
easy to make explants and perform transplantations
transgenic
pancreas present 
regeneration
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42
Q

what are gallus gallus?

A

chicks

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43
Q

are chicks proto or deuterostomes?

A

deuterostomes

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44
Q

give 3 benefits of using chicks

A

transplantation experiments
sequenced genome
overexpression and knock out experiments

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45
Q

by what name is Mus musculus better known?

A

mouse

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46
Q

are mice proto or deuterostomes?

A

deutero

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47
Q

give 2 benefits of using mice

A

strong genes

mammal

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48
Q

give 3 benefits of using homo sapiens

A

genetics
mammal
sequenced genome induced pluripotent embryonic stem cells

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49
Q

how many thoracic segments in adult fruit flies?

A

3

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50
Q

where are the notum and wings found on a fly?

A

the 2nd thoracic segment

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51
Q

where are the halters found on a fly?

A

the 3rd thoracic segment

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52
Q

what happens when there’s a mutation in the bithorax complex?

A

the 3rd thoracic segment can be transfotmed into the 2nd thoracic segment, therefore there are 2 2nd thoracic segments

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53
Q

what are homeotic mutations?

A

where one body part has been transformed into another

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54
Q

where are genes for mutant and non-mutant parts of the fruit fly found?

A

in the same region of the chromosome

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55
Q

in what were hox genes first identified?

A

in drosophila

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56
Q

what did hox genes cause in drosophila?

A

homeotic mutations/transformations

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57
Q

hox genes are evolutionarily conserved, what does this mean?

A

they’ve remained essentially unchanged throughout evolution

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58
Q

what’s the homeodomain?

A

the region on a protein that binds to the DNA

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59
Q

where are hox genes found?

A

clustered in the genome

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60
Q

what’s tandem gene duplication?

A

where unequal crossover is caused by a chromosome mispairing at meiosis, possibly due to repeated DNA sequences

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61
Q

what are paralogous genes?

A

duplicated genes within a single genome

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62
Q

what are orthologous genes?

A

the same gene in different organisms

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63
Q

what are homologous genes?

A

genes that share a single common ancestor

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64
Q

what does it mean when genes are duplicated in tandem?

A

each is the same as the last

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65
Q

if each gene is the same as the last, what is there?

A

redundancy

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66
Q

if there’s redundancy in the genes is it ok if one is lost? why?

A

yes as there’s no selection pressure for the genes to be there

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67
Q

what do the genes in tandem acquire new functions over time?

A

new functions

68
Q

is it ok if one of the genes with a new acquired function is lost?

A

no as the genes are different so there isn’t simply the same gene to replace it

69
Q

what is subfunctionalization?

A

a neutral mutation process where no new adaptations are made

70
Q

what are the 2 mechanisms of subfunctionalization?

A

change in protein sequence

change in time/place of gene expression

71
Q

what’s segmental duplication?

A

a big tandem duplication affecting a whole chunk of chromosome

72
Q

what can tandem and segmental duplication events give rise to in drosophila?

A

2 hox clusters

73
Q

by what 2 mechanisms can whole genome duplication events occur by?

A
  • allotetraploidy

- autotetraploidy

74
Q

what’s allotetraploidy?

A

hybridization between 2 separate species

75
Q

what’s autotetraploidy?

A

duplication of genome through improper meiosis- instead of haploid germ cells, there are diploid germ cells giving tetraploid organisms

76
Q

diplo meaning

A

2

77
Q

triplo meaning

A

3

78
Q

zoa meaning

A

life

79
Q

blast meaning

A

bud

80
Q

derm meaning

A

skin

81
Q

noto meaning

A

back

82
Q

endo meaning

A

inside

83
Q

meso meaning

A

middle

84
Q

ecto meaning

A

outside

85
Q

meta meaning

A

after

86
Q

chord meaning

A

string/rope

87
Q

uro meaning

A

tail

88
Q

cephalo meaning

A

head

89
Q

echino meaning

A

spiny/prickly

90
Q

protozoan meaning

A

first/primitive life

91
Q

metazoan meaning

A

multicellular animals

92
Q

diploblastic meaning

A

containing 2 tissue layers

93
Q

triploblastic meaning

A

containing 3 tissue layers

94
Q

endoderm meaning

A

tissue (germ layer) on the inside

95
Q

what does the endoderm give rise to?

A

internal organs

96
Q

mesoderm meaning

A

tissue (germ layer) in the middle

97
Q

what does the mesoderm give rise to?

A

notochord, muscle etc

98
Q

ectoderm meaning

A

tissue (germ layer) on the outside

99
Q

what does the ectoderm give rise to?

A

skin and nervous system

100
Q

chordate meaning

A

animal without notochords

101
Q

notochord meaning

A

chord in the back

102
Q

urochordate meaning

A

animal with notochord in their tails

103
Q

cephalochordate meaning

A

animals with notochord extending to their heads

104
Q

echinoderm meaning

A

prickly skin

105
Q

give an example of an echinoderm

A

sea urchin

106
Q

what is descriptive embryology?

A
  • experiments which aim to define normal embryonic development with minimal disruption of the process
  • leads to an understanding of what happens during development- but not how
107
Q

what is experimental embryology?

A
  • experiments which aim to define how embryonic development occurs e.g. how and when cells acquire their fate
  • requires experiments that perturb normal development- manipulations
    e. g. transplantation studies to find whether the cell or its surroundings controls outcome
108
Q

what’s morphogenesis?

A

process by which form is generated- involves coordinated cell movement

109
Q

what’s gastrulation?

A

morphogenic process by which the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm layers reach their final position in embryo

110
Q

morpho meaning?

A

shape/form

111
Q

genesis meaning?

A

birth/origin

112
Q

what’s neurulation

A

morphogenic process by which the nervous system begins to form- especially formation of neural tube

113
Q

what’s a blastomere?

A

a cell in the early embryo

114
Q

what’s a fate map?

A
  • assessment of the fate of a cell/group of cells based on lineage labelling
  • answers question- what will this cell become if left to develop undisturbed in embryo ?
115
Q

what part of embryology is a fate map part of?

A

descriptive

116
Q

what’s a specification map?

A
  • assessment of what a cell or group of cells will form into if removed from their embryonic environment (neighbouring cells)
  • asking what a cell ‘thinks’ it should become when isolated from neighbours
117
Q

what part of embryology is a specification map part of?

A

experimental

118
Q

what is meant by determined?

A

cell/tissue is determined if it will still develop according to its fate, even when transplanted into another site in the embryo (a new environment)

119
Q

what is meant by competence?

A

the range of cell fates which can be achieved by a cell/group of cells given the appropriate conditions (what it is capable of becoming)

120
Q

what’s induction?

A

the process by which a cell/group of cells emits signals to its neighbouring cells, thereby changing their fate

121
Q

what was done in the organizer experiment 1924?

A

took dorsal mesoderm from newt embryo and put into the ventral side of the other embryo –> gave siamese twin embryo

122
Q

what’s homeotic mutation?

A

mutation which results in the transformation of one body structure into another

123
Q

what is a hox gene?

A

a family of genes which encode related transcription factors characterised by containing a DNA binding domain- the homeodomain/homeobox
evolutionary conserved

124
Q

where were hox genes first identified?

A

drosophila

125
Q

what did the hox genes show in the drosophila?

A

they are involved in anterior posterior patterning

126
Q

what can mutations in hox genes lead to?

A

homeotic mutation

127
Q

where are hox genes found?

A

clustered in the genome

128
Q

what’s colinearity?

A

genes in the 3’ end are expressed progressively earllier and more anteriorly that genes in the 5’ end of the cluster

129
Q

what are the 3 sources of evidence for the effects of hox genes?

A
  • expression pattern
  • comparative embryology
  • gene knockout experiments
130
Q

what are somites?

A

mesoderm derivative

segmental blocks of tissue forming from anterior to posterior

131
Q

what do somites give rise to?

A

muscles, vertebrae and dermis of the skin

132
Q

what are homologous genes?

A

genes that share a common ancestral gene

133
Q

what are paralogous genes?

A

duplicated genes within a single genome

134
Q

what are orthologous genes?

A

same gene, different organism

135
Q

what is gene redundancy?

A

situation where no phenotype is observed when a gene is mutated because another gene can replace/substitute the function of the mutated gene
masks the role of a mutated gene

136
Q

what do phenotypes arising from mutation show?

A

what the gene is required for

137
Q

what are the 3 modes of gene duplication?

A

tandem
segmental
whole genome

138
Q

what causes tandem gene duplication?

A

chromosomes mis-pairing at meiosis, possibly caused by repeat DNA sequences

139
Q

what’s segmental gene duplication?

A

giant tandem duplication (whole chunk of chromosome)

140
Q

what are the 2 whole genome duplication events called?

A

allotetraploidy

autotetraploidy

141
Q

what’s potency?

A

the range of cell fates available to a cell or a group of cells (similar to competence)

142
Q

what’s totipotent?

A

cells that can give rise to all cells in the embryo- even extra embryonic membranes+ tissues

143
Q

what’s pluripotent?

A

cells that can give rise to most, but not all cells in the embryo

144
Q

what’s bipotent?

A

cells that can give rise to 2 cell types

145
Q

what’s unipotent?

A

cells that can give rise to 1 cell type

146
Q

what did mangold and speman do?

A

discovered the organiser

147
Q

what did speman do?

A

discovered nucleus at 16 cell stage was totipotent

148
Q

what did briggs and kings do?

A

first to successfully transplant nuclei into eggs

149
Q

what did gordon do?

A

first to clone an adult animal through nuclear transplantation

150
Q

what did cambell and wilimit do?

A

first to clone a mammal (dolly)

151
Q

what did martin evans do?

A

first to isolate and culture embryonic stem cells from mouse embryos

152
Q

what did shinya yamanka do?

A

first to successfully indice pluripotency without the need to transplant nuclei into eggs or generate embryos

153
Q

what does the waddington landscape show?

A

potency decreases over time

154
Q

what doesn’t the waddington landscape show?

A

it’s not one way, cells can be driven back up to become more potent

155
Q

what are the three parts of the mammalian preimplantation blastocyst embryo?

A

epiblast
trophoblast
blastocode

156
Q

what’s the epiplast/inner cell mass?

A

gives rise to the embryo including the germ cells- source of pluripotent embryonic stem cells

157
Q

what’s the trophoblast?

A

gives rise to extraembryonic membranes including the placenta

158
Q

what makes Human Embryonic Stem (hES) and induced Pluripotent Stem (iPS) cells valuable? (4)

A
  • study human embryonic development in vitro
  • generate organs in vitro
  • model genetic diseases in vitro
  • harness to treat genetic diseases in humans
159
Q

what do adult stem cells do?

A

play a role in replacing cells throughout life

160
Q

where are adult stem cells found- give 3

A 
3 from
bone marrow
skin
hair follicle
gut
blood
161
Q

what are stem cells sensitive to?

A

radiation and chemotherapy

162
Q

what was the first successful example of stem cell therapy in humans?

A

bone marrow transplantation

163
Q

what stem cells are found in bone marrow?

A

human hematopoietic

164
Q

what can limbic SCs treat?

A

corneal injuries

165
Q

what can keratinocyte SCs treat?

A

burn injuries

166
Q

what’s the beauty of using human derived induced pluripotent stem cells?

A

the patient themselves provides the cells- no issues in rejection (personalised medicine)

Genes, Evolution and Development (3 decks)

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