Development Flashcards
Defining Development:
What are some characteristics of development?
Something that is 'good' For the 'deserving' poor progression (more advanced) post - 1945 modernisation wester led?
Defining Development
What are the different types of development?
Assistance for International Development (AID)
- support from developed to developing countries. (not the same as disaster relief)
Development state
- project of national development e.g. Brazil, China, S.Korea
Defining Development
Who are the top two recipients of aid
Iraq - 9115 (USD millions
Afghanistan - 3195
Defining Development
Aid to least developed countries is falling
NA
Defining Development
What are the two types of poverty?
Absolute and Relative
Defining Development
What is Absolute poverty?
UN (1995): “condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services”
World Bank (2005 prices) international poverty line of $1.25 per day
Defining Development
What is Relative poverty?
socially defined standard which therefore differs between countries overtime.
Defining Development
What is the Human Rights Based Approach to development (UNHR)?
It contains many different rights including: - the right to education, the right to life, liberty and security, -freedom of expression, - protection of the law - freedom from slavery
Defining Development
What are some development failures?
there is nothing new about development so surely if it was always working we would have ended poverty by now?
Suggested it could be:
- neo-colonial?
- pro-capitalist?
- anti-market?
- too little?
- too much?
- poor projects
Maybe it’s working and it’s just a matter a time?
Measuring Development
discuss the widening gap
Has the gap between the rich and poor nations narrowed since 1945?
whats more important, inequality or progress?
Expectations of modernity
What institutions were created in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Institutions?
IMF
World Bank
also established primacy of US gold and dollar
Expectations of modernity
What is modernisation?
Social change can result from adopting characteristics of more advanced (westernised) societies, including a centralised powerful state.
Acceptance of scientifically rational norms and transformation of social relations.
Under developed is a consequence of conditions internal to less developed societies.
Expectations of modernity
What is Rostows theory of economic growth?
It is based on the experiences of Europe and North america and states that each country must pass through 5 stages in order to be developed.
- Traditional society, limited technology, static society
- Preconditions for take off, commercial exploitation of agriculture and extractive industry.
- take off, development of manufacturing sector
- drive to maturity, development of wider industrial and commercial base
- high mass consumption.
A linear narrative of modernisation as development.
Expectations of modernity
Some suggest that the affluence and development of countries in stage 5 is dependent of them exploiting other stages
NA
Expectations of modernity
Zambia
Copper mining, built towns looked like USA, had deteriorating terms of trade. development denied: falling copper prices and production, external debt burden, huger and malnutrition, AIDs epidemic. Rosters theory breaks down as Zambia went from stage 3 to 2. Is globalisation the explanation?
Development theories
Critiques of modernisation
ICT4D - Laptops for children - development as modernisation today.
‘Left’ - Failure, eurocentric, top down, reproduced capitalist society,
‘Right’ - Failure, CA, inefficient, Blocked free market
Development theories
Zambia - after modernisation (mid 70s onwards)
development policy in Zambia abandoned goal of industrialisation and free market was promoted as solution for development.
Development theories
Explain neoliberalism
theory underpinning structural adjustment, market is main actor in economy (Hayek) public sector reduced (Thatcher) trade barriers lowered (globalisation)
Development theories
explain the dependency theory
Relationships of exchange between rich and poor nations (Frank)
Wallerstein’s world systems theory
Development theories
Explain development state
strong state takes control of economy state drives industrialisation, normally capitalist but with protectionism, can involve modernisation.
Development theories
Explain what orientalist discover creates
constructs a binary opposition between ‘west’ and ‘east’ (Said 1978)
Development theories
Explain Bottom up development
In the 1980s and 1990s people began to embrace post-modernism. Participation, gender, environment, disability.
Alternative ideas became the mainstream in AID.
Development theories
Explain participatory approaches in development
they acknowledged non-western knowledge, giving voice to ‘others’ “putting the last first”
Problems with AID projects - biases: temporal, spatial and respondent.
Solution - new methods - Participatory approaches.
Resource Curse
What are the theories of the ‘resource curse’?
- Tax policy: decline in need for tax weakens the social contract between state and citizens. undermines democracy, competition for state power.
- Over reliance and vulnerability: commodity prices fall (except oil)
- Dutch disease: Netherlands discovered natural gas but the rest of their economy declined, became unbalanced, oil or gas requires little labour.
Resource Curse
What are the two options for managing a resource (oil)
- Conservative strategy: this recognises the danger of dutch disease, the potential for corruption and the volatility of global oil prices.
- Big push - revenues are used to support investment for growth
Resource Curse
What did the expansion of capitalism lead to?
Businesses spreading geographically and the race to the bottom (wages)
Resource Curse
Is there really free trade?
Rather than being truly liberal english led trade in the 18th and 19th century was heavily regulated: Protected markets, monopolies, price controls, tariffs, capital constraints.
Resource Curse
What happened during post war trade liberalisation?
Trade was liberalised between rich countries, especially through the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) and later the WTO.
Resource Curse
Africas relation to the world has persistently been determined by exports of agricultural products and mineral commodities
NA
Development of E.Asia and S.Korea
Do countries need to protect their economies to develop?
What are NICs?
Newly industrialised countries:
Developmental states, important role for national government, not unfettered by free market economies.
Development of E.Asia and S.Korea
compare Ghana and S.Korea historically
1961 S.Korea income was $82 per person, Ghana’s was $179. Nkrumah proclaimed Ghana to be “free forever” and USAID said Korea was a ‘bottomless pit’
Development of E.Asia and S.Korea
What happened to S.Korea following the Korean war?
1950 - 53 (Korean war) post war recovery: S.Korea had one of the world’s fastest growing economies in the second half of the 20th century.
Development of E.Asia and S.Korea
In contrast, what was N.Korea like?
They were trapped in persistent poverty, amongst poorest country in the world and widespread famine was commonplace.
Development of E.Asia and S.Korea
Why did some Asian nations develop?
S.Korea’s post war leader, General Park Chung-Hee, had goal of raising per capita income 1000 USD by 1981, had 5 year economic plans, per capita grew phenomenally and the country was obsessed with economic growth.
Development of E.Asia and S.Korea
What led to S.Korean development?
The absence of natural resources, long term policy, geo political support.
This process could not easily be replicated in sub saharan Africa.
Development of E.Asia and S.Korea
Koreas policies did not follow the neo liberal model (Chang)
NA
Development of E.Asia and S.Korea
Does democracy and freedom equal development?
“freedoms are not only the primary ends of development they are also among its principle means” (Sen)
Development in China
Explain Marxists idea of development
- Primitive communism e.g. Hunter gathers
- Feudalism e.g. Medieval Europe
- Capitalism e.g. Home grown, Western Europe, Imposed arrival, colonial territories
- communism
Marx saw communism as the end stage.
Development in China
Explain the Great Leap Forward
The GLF took place between 1958-63, emphasised production and technological and organisational change, established peoples communes, rural industrialisation and collective feed agriculture. GLF famine c.30m deaths
Development in China
Explain the Cultural revolution
Took place between 1966-76, sought to reconfigure social relations and mental conceptions of the world directly (failed)
Development in China
Explain Chinese Autarky
Exists when an entity can survive or continue its activities without external assistance or international trade:
Trade embargo by West, cold war, isolated for USSR, Cuba and Vietnam, self sufficiency, Began to end in 1979.
Development in China
Despite poverty and hardship of GLD and CR these periods shaped social geographies of China and enabled the capitalist transformation of society.
NA
Development in China
What are the drivers of growth in China: state led capitalism?
Town and village enterprises and state owned enterprises.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
What was the scale of the third world debt pre and post 1970s?
pre 1970s - debts were small and manageable, 70s most heavily indebted nations owed $18bn by 87 it was $402bn and today it is $2.7 trillion.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
What is the ‘other side’ of the debt crisis?
Industrial world’s dependency on oil and gas, force and power of financialism and global capital flows, rise of new poles of capital accumulation, e.g. Gulf states. OPEC countries fixed price of oil. prices dramatically increased in 1973-74 and 1979-80 following OPEC embargo. Rich and poor nations hit by oil shortage and dramatic increase, price rose 280%.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
What was the recycling of petrol dollars?
Linking to the ‘other side’ of the debt crisis. The OPEC countries gained massive increases in income, this money was recycled through US banks and lent to developing economies.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
What was lending for modernisation?
some money was used to modernise African economies in a hope to ‘kick start’ development.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
What was borrowing for consumption?
Money was also used to meet basic needs e.g. health care and consumption, there was some irresponsible borrowing however, e.g. by dictators on military equipment.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
What were the causes of the 1982 debt crisis?
First traced to higher oil prices in 73-74 and 79-80, decrease in export prices and volume associated with global recession 81-82. Problems of domestic economy management, high interest rates in 80-82.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
What was the justification for SAPs?
Failure of modernisation - state sector proved inefficient, Comparative Advantage, Ideological project - followed neoliberal development model.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
What were the impacts of the debt crisis?
outflows of capital to finance debt, decline in average GDP growth from 6.3% per year (1965-80) to 1.7% per year (1980-90), in 1988 1bn people were chronically underfed.
Manufacturing declined, in Nigeria people employed in the clothing sector went from 200,000 to near extinction. Developing countries debts grew.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
Why did debts grow?
loans paid in hard currency, value of developing countries exports decreased, refinancing of loans, had to get new loans in order to pay off the interest from the old loans.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
What were the impacts in Latin America (debt crisis)?
lost a decade of development according to Jeffery Sachs. As real wages fell 50%.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
How were debts reduced?
Reform (SAPs and Washington consensus)
Relief (HIPC, debt cancellation)
Growth (2000s Natural Resource Boom)
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
Explain debt cancellation
$97 bn of debt was cancelled in poor countries since 1996, mainly in HIPC. Negatives: 1. not all poor countries benefited 2. vulture funds, 3. re-accumulating debts.
Structural adjustment and the debt crisis in Africa
did debt cause poverty?
Uk debt is 90% of GDP
are debt crises a feature of capitalism?
NA
Urban Livelihoods
Explain urbanisation in Africa
Rapid population growth explained by application of technologies, widespread poverty linked to SAPs.
Urban Livelihoods
Food imports, consequence of food crisis led to protests and export bans/restrictions in different countries.
NA
Urban Livelihoods
Explain urban poor
Informal sector, global south increasingly urbanising and diverse range of urban income earning livelihood activities commonly defined as being part of an ‘inform sector’ have arisen following the liberalisation of economies in the global south (Lindel, 2010)
Urban Livelihoods
What percentage do informal economies account for?
They account for 83% of labour force in Zambia, 77% in Kenya and 88% in Malawi.
SAPs had negative impacts on industrial development.
Development success and failure in Mozambique
give a brief history to Mozambique
colonial history, Portuguese rule, struggle for independence began in 1960, became independent in 1974, civil war 1974-92. Peace dividend, Frelimo has won all elections - goal of socialism abandoned, big aid flows, economic performance has been good.
Development success and failure in Mozambique
How has Mozambique done development wise?
celebrated as a model of development in Africa. Economic liberalisation has led to ‘good performance’
2005-09 annual growth average 7.6% of GDP, income per capita increase average of 5% per year, but still 185th on HDI.
Development success and failure in Mozambique
Describe life in Mozambique’s informal Barrios
overcrowding, inadequate services, household income $144 USD per month with 6.9 people per household. food insecurity due to a lack of access to sufficient affordable food, poor dietary quality and undernutrition.
Development success and failure in Mozambique
Explain why Mozambique has a growing economy and persistent poverty.
growth figures used to frame ‘market friendly’ as being ‘success’, increased consumption of foreign goods.
Development success and failure in Mozambique
Explain urban food insecurity and unrest
2008-10 food riots spread across Maputo, liberalisation of economy means imports are cheaper than locally produced food/goods. Increased vulnerability to global price variation.
Development success and failure in Mozambique
Why is it deemed a success?
That depends on the indicator used. GDP rate of 5-7% for over a decade but it has never left the bottom 10% of HDI, 50% below the poverty line but it does validate the neoliberal model.
The MDGs, SDGs and PRSPs
What is aid conditionality?
applying conditions to aid e.g. SAPs.
Donors ‘buy’ good policy, assumes aid is altruistic and donors know best. Requires local ownership.
The MDGs, SDGs and PRSPs
Who gives the most aid and why?
USA
Reasons:
National security - counter terrorism has been a focus since 2001
Humanitarian concerns - less suffering = better world
Commercial interest - investment
The MDGs, SDGs and PRSPs
Who are the top recipients of aid from the US?
Israel, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iraq and Egypt
Are they the most deserving?
The MDGs, SDGs and PRSPs
How are conditions of PRSPs applied?
Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers enhance ownership of conditions, response to unpopular SAPs, encourages ‘good governance’ Appearance rather than a reality of local ownership.
The MDGs, SDGs and PRSPs
Explain universiality
universal values - are there really such things?
rise of NGOs
UN unambiguously good?
The MDGs, SDGs and PRSPs
Criticisms of MDGs
Ignores important issues, does not address inequality, absolute or relative change? Lack of African progress is hidden, reinforces neoliberal context.
The MDGs, SDGs and PRSPs
MDGs and authority
Strong power dimensions, market led, places emphasis and responsibility on individual states, reinforces ‘Africa rising’ narrative, China contributed 2/3’s of worlds reduction in extreme poverty - without them MDGs would have been far worse off.
Extraversion, corruption and passive revolution
What is passive revolution?
“enable ruling class to survive and dominate through the state and to reconstruct economies in ways which project a new capitalist trajectory and class structure”
Extraversion, corruption and passive revolution
does extraversion = neocolonialism?
No
Extraversion, corruption and passive revolution
What is extraversion?
local elites have replaced colonial elites in countries such as S.Africa and Zimbabwe, sometimes work with foreign interest other times they oppose them, elites maintained in power through processes of ‘passive revolution’ explains how elites take advantage of their intermediary relationship e.g. corruption and aid.
Extraversion, corruption and passive revolution
corruption
the fight against corruption is a part of the fight against poverty, not just because corruption is wrong and bad but because it really retards development (Wolfowitz)
Extraversion, corruption and passive revolution
what is a bribe?
A bribe is a transfer of money from one person to another and does not necessarily have negative effects on economic efficiency and growth. Instead it is an act of redistribution.
Extraversion, corruption and passive revolution
Arguably corruption is a key element of the expansion of the capitalist mode of production
e.g. used car trade in Mozambique - economic growth occurs alongside corruption.
After Development
What are the development paradigms since WW2?
modernisation, development state, debt and structural adjustment, then globalisation, post development?
After Development
What is meant my modernisation?
social change can result from adopting the characteristics of more advanced societies, including a centralised powerful state, acceptance of scientifically rational norms and transformation of social relations, underdevelopment is a consequence of conditions internal to less developed societies. Rosters 1960.
After Development
What is meant by development state?
the state is the main actor in the economy national industries, invests in infrastructure, import substitution and high tariff barriers
e.g. post war south korea. development state, industrialisation programme steel mills, modern shipyards, cars etc. State led economic planning and infrastructure investment. controls on consumption of imported goods and foreign exchange spending.
After Development
What is meant by SAP and neoliberalisation?
The theory underpinning structural adjustment, market is main actor in economy. Public sector is reduced. Trade barriers lowered (globalisation).
E.g. Mozambiques neloiberalisation - declining formal ‘modern’ employment - dependency on natural resources. Some increase in opportunities to consume, GDP growth with increased income inequality. Investment e.g. BRICS - persistent widespread poverty and inequality.
After Development
Explain liberalism and new philanthropy
Private individuals playing major role in development
After Development
explain development impasse
Failure if western discourses and theories of development, state models of development had led to stagnant growth of hyperinflation, neoliberal models of development had led to intolerable social inequality.
OR
is this a problem of western values? are there universally agreed principles fro development?
After Development
Explain post development
denote both the failure of conventional level (in africa) and the alternatives. Positions development as a failed attempt at modernisation of the global economy. Strategies (e.g. SAPs) and institutions (e.g. IMF & WB) dominated by politics and values of global north have failed in global south.
After Development
Explain post development: development as Apolitical
development may be viewed as a smokescreen which conceals the need for more fundamental and radical changes to the global economy. Development is hegemonic western capitalism and alternatively solutions are required to lift poorest members of global society out of poverty.
