development Flashcards
did this in a rush for feb exam, didn't really finish or review
pre-natal age
conception to birth
childhood age
birth to age of twelve
childhood characteristics
reliant on caregivers
gains skills such as walking and talking as they copy those around them
adolescence age
13-19
adolescence characteristics
transitional stage from child to adult
significant changes e.g sexually
adulthood age
twenty until death
adulthood characteristics
new responsibilities e.g intimate relationships, parent hood and careers
what does the nervous system do
acts on the body’s control centre (hypothalamus)
how does the nervous system work
interprets sensory info from the senses and sends neurons to muscles and glands to react
what is the CNS
central nervous system
brain and spinal chord
what is the PNS
peripheral nervous system
consists of the nerves that brain out FROM the brain and spinal chord throughout the body
what is the nervous system made up of
neurons
4 characteristics of neurons
cell body
dendrites
axon
synapse
cell body
receive info via electrical impulse from dendrites
dendrites
like fingers
receive info from other neurons and transmit to cell body
axon
long
pass along the info
synapse
-gap between two neurons
-at the axon terminal
-electrical impulse triggers the release of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) which are diffused across the synapse
what happens when the neurotransmitters reach the other neurons
bind with receptors
what does IQ stand for and what is it
Intelligence quotient
Measure of intelligence
who created the IQ test
Alfred Binet
why was the IQ test created
In the early 1900s, Alfred Binet was asked by the french government to find a way to identify which school children were at a greatest risk of struggling so that they could be provided with extra help
average score vs genius score
100 vs 140
example of psychological testing being used as a form of social control
First World war in the usa, three IQ test were developed to screen recruits for the us army
alpha test
written test for literate recruits
The Beta
seven-part picture completion for illiterates
what was the third test
spoken examination for those who failed beta
criticisms of this testing in the 1900s US - too cul…
culturally specific e.g brand names
criticisms of this testing in the 1900s US - problems..
with the beta test so illiterates were given alpha - huge disadvantage
who did Piaget observe to form his theory
his own children and their friends
what is Piaget’s theory called
Theory of Cognitive development
2 ways Piaget described the stages and how many
Invariant - children pass through in same order
Universal - same for all children
4 in total
little scientists
how Piaget viewed children
from the moment they are born, they are actively trying to understand their environment
schema
mental picture/representation of an idea based on our own experience in the world
assimilation
new info is MERGED into an existing schema
accommodation
new info results in a new schema being formed or an existing schema being altered
assimilation example
learning the term “dog” and referring all 4 legged furry animals as a dog, including cats for example.
accommodation example
it is explained that cats are different from dogs despite being 4 legged furry animals, the child existing schema is altered to distinguish between cats and dogs
1st stage of cognitive development and age range
sensori-motor stage (birth to 2 years)
what is the reason for the name
babies learn about the world through senses (sensori) and by moving around their environment and playing (motor)
feature(s) of sensori-motor stage
object permanence
(lacking) object permanence meaning
when an object is hidden/out of sight, the child thinks it ceases exist
when do they develop object permanence
at around 8-12 months, so skill is developed in sensori-motor stage
2nd stage of cognitive development and age range
pre-operational stage (2-7)
feature(s) of pre-operational stage
animism
egocentrism
reversibility
animism
belief that inanimate objects have feeling e.g a wilting flower is sad
egocentrism
when a child lacks empathy because they think everyone sees the world the same way they do
if someone else is hurt, but they are not, they won’t empathise
reversibility
children are unable to think about things in the reverse order e.g 2x4 = 4x2 or a ball of plasticine being flatted and being able to go back to a ball again
3rd stage of cognitive development and age range
concrete operational stage (7-11)
feature(s) of concrete operation stage
conservation
decentration
seriation
linguistic humour
conservation
a child is able to tell that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance chances e.g liquid in a tall thin glass and in a small wide glass
decentration
child is able to focus on more than one aspect of a situation e.g reading (not just looking at letter individually but making sense of them as words and sentences)
seriation
able to put things in rank order
linguistic humour
using language to create jokes
4th stage of cognitive development stage and age range
formal operational (11+)
feature(s) of formal operational
abstract and hypothetical thinking
hypothetical thinking
abstract ideas such as mental maths or understanding what it was like for children living in extreme poverty in the Victorian England despite never having experienced poverty themselves
piaget’s THEORY has been criticised for underestimating….
the age at which children an achieve the different stages
- psychologists have argued that young children may HAVE object permanence but just lack skills/ motivation to find the missing today
piaget’s THEORY has been criticised as research has shown only half..
of adults actually reach the formal operational stage
-so it is not technically universal and may be culturally biased
piaget’s THEORY has been criticised for describing…
the different stages but not explaining HOW these occur
- we don’t know what actually promotes the changes
piaget’s THEORY has been criticised for being reduc….
reductionist because he didn’t take into account the importance that other people had on a child’s learning
-he viewed them as independent little scientists exploring without support
brief - all 4 criticisms of piaget’s theory
underestimating the age at which children can achieve the stages
only half of adults actually reach formal operation
describes different stages but doesn’t explain how they occur
reductionist as he didn’t look consider other people on a child’s learning e.g parents and teachers
order of conservation ability
number
mass
volume
what was the aim of Piaget’s study into conservation of number
to demonstrate that children in the CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE are more likely to conserve than children in the PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE
what was piaget’s hypothesis for his study into conservation of number
that children in pre-operational would not being to conserve at all
concrete-operational would be able to
what are demand characteristics
demand characteristics are cues that might indicate the study aims to participants
These cues can lead participants to change their behaviours or responses based on what they think the research is about.
what type of experiment was Piaget’s study into conservation of number, why?
NATURAL experiment as the independent variable was NATURALLY occurring (the age of the children
what type of study was Piaget’s study into conservation of number, why?
cross sectional study because Piaget tested different children of different ages (2-7 and 7-11)
what type of design is Piaget’s study into conservation of number
independent measure’s design - participants only took part in the task once
sample size of Piaget’s study into conservation of number
unknown - did not report it
estimated to be relatively small including his own three children
where were the children from
Swiss school children from Geneva
materials of Piaget’s study into conservation of number
counters
procedure of Piaget’s study into conservation of number
tested individually
shown two row of counters lined up side by side equally matched
child was then asked the question (state question)
experimenter than spread out one of the rows and child could SEE the transformation process
same question was then asked again, now that one appeared longer than the other
what was the question asked twice in Piaget’s study into conservation of number
“Is there the same number of counters in each row?”
results of Piaget’s study into conservation of number
3-4 yrs: more in the longer transformed row
5-6- yrs (end of pre-operational): number remained the same but unable to justify answer correctly
concrete operational: number remained same in both rows + were able to justify that even though length has changed, number of counters remained the same
in conclusion, what could children in concrete operation do compared to those in pre-operational
conserve AND justify
Piaget’s study into conservation of number has been criticised for having a meth..
methodological problem
- children were asked the same question twice which can cause them to show demand characteristics as they felt they were expected to give a different answer
Piaget’s study into conservation of number has been criticised for being art…
artificial
- adult performing the transformation in front of the younger ones would make them believe that something must’ve changed because the adult did something
could be improved by a “naughty teddy” changing it, so the focus of the transformation is taken away from the researcher
Piaget’s study into conservation of number has been criticised for being cultur…
culturally biased
-only conducted on swiss school children so the ability to conserve may be affected by education and upbringing
all criticisms of Piaget’s study into conservation of number
methodological problem
artificial
culturally biased
where was the research for Piaget’s study into conservation of number conducted
Geneva, Switzerland
are learning the theories the alternative to piaget’s theory
yes
who created the ideas on fixed and growth mindsets
Carol DWECK
what do those with fixed mindsets believe
intelligence is innate and therefore cannot be changed
what do those with growth mindsets believe
they can develop their intelligence over time
how do those with fixed mindsets take failure
take failure badly
how do those with growth mindsets take failure
see failure as an opportunity to prove themselves and overcome a hurdle
people with fixed mindsets are most concerned with..
looking intelligent and avoid doing things that they could potentially fail at
how does Dweck suggest teachers can encourage students to take the time to develop a new skill
Teach the idea that being able to do something quickly is not necessarily a good thing - skill may not have been deeply learnt
Can you hold different mindsets for different abilities
Yes e.g growth for maths but fixed for english
What effect did Dweck investigate
effect of praise for effort vs praising of intelligence
what were Dweck’s findings on children praised for effort (nurture)
children who are praised for effort demonstrated more value for learning opportunities
children who are praised for intelligence focus on performance and comparing themselves to others. also feel as though there is ceiling and can
what were Dweck’s findings on children praised for intelligence (nurture)
children who are praised for intelligence focus on performance and comparing themselves to others. also feel as though there is ceiling - intelligence is limited and can’t develop past a certain point e.g doing GCSE’s well but not feeling like you can handle A-levels
Dweck’s ideas on fixed and growth mindsets can be criticised for placing failure..
placing failure directly on the student
says failure is due to their mindset and effort, but doesn’t consider factors such as bullying affecting their ability to learn
Dweck’s ideas on fixed and growth mindsets can be criticised as more research has failed..
more research has failed to find evidence that mindsets work
-only research that has found significant results have been published, giving an unrealistic view
so growth mindset may not have as big an impact on learning as the theory would suggest
Dweck’s ideas on fixed and growth mindsets can be criticised as Cohn suggests…
Cohn suggest it conveys to children that they are not very good at what they are doing.
Being praised on effort may suggest that they didn’t do well in the end, otherwise they’d be praised for achievement.
Dweck’s ideas on fixed and growth mindsets can be criticised as nurture..
Nurture is a key aspect of this theory as it assumes that the child can make the change themselves
But this can have negative impact on self esteem if they fail to succeed
Innate abilities may have a greater impact than Dweck realises
brief - all 4 criticisms of Dweck’s learning theory
Places failure directly on the student
More research has failed to find evidence that mindsets work
Praising effort may suggest they’re not good at what they’e doing
Nurture aspect can have negative affect on child if they don’t succeed
bq: what does Dweck believe about intelligence
two types of mindsets - fixed and growth
why does dweck believe that praise for intelligence can have a negative effect on children?
ceiling! at one point, the child will think they’ve reached their limit for intelligence and can’t develop further.
E.g those who found GCSE’s easy but don’t know what to do when A-levels are tough
how does having a growth mindset help children learn at school
keep positive
think of failure as lack of effort rather than they just can’t do it
how do you answer a broad question about learning theories?
refer to both Dweck and Willingham
what does willingham believe knowledge/ learning should be? why?
meaningful
info will be learned more deeply and can be recalled from long-term memory
what does willingham believe is a myth
That learning styles are a myth
what are learning styles
preference of how new info is learnt e.g kinaesthetic, visual, auditory
what evidence is there that learning styles do not improve learning
you may have a preference, but we are all tested in the same way (written exams.
people care more about what they’re learning rather than how
how does Willingham’s theory favour nurture
he ignores innate intelligence
only refers to how you add to your knowledge through meaning
willingham’s theory can be criticised as teachers believe…
that there IS benefit to children trying to be scientists or historians and it is important for them to conduct experiements themselves
willingham’s theory can be criticised as certain thigns…
certain things might benefit from being drilled e.g learning times table off by heart as a chant
willingham’s theory can be criticised as it favours nurture
both dweck and willingham’s theories favor nurture over nature as they are learning theories and ignore the influence of innate factors on childrens development
willingham’s theory can be criticised as even though he favours nurture..
even though he favours nurture he fails to recognise that the way you learned as you were younger may actually condition you to learn better that way
