Development Flashcards
What is the current developmental psychology perspective on the relationship between nature and nurture (genes and environment)?
Both nature and nurture interact to produce specific developmental patterns and outcomes.
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional research compares people of different ages at the same point in time
- It provides information about differences in development between different age groups.
Longitudinal
Longitudinal research traces behaviour of one or more of the participants as the participants age.
- It assesses change in behaviour over time.
Sequential
Sequential research combines both cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by taking a number of different age groups and examining them at several different points in time.
Stages of prenatal development
- Germinal
- Embryonic
- Fetal
Germinal stage
The first two weeks as the zygote develops.
Embryonic period
Follows the germinal stage, which lasts from week 2 to week 8. The zygote is now called an embryo.
At this point, they have developed a beating heart, brain, intestinal tract, and a number of other organs.
Fetal period
At the beginning of this stage, the fetus begins to respond to touch.
At weeks 16 to 18, fetal movements become strong enough for the mother to sense them.
Hair may begin to grow on the fetus’ head and facial features become similar to the ones that will be displayed at birth.
Critical periods of prenatal development
A sensitive (or critical) period is the time when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli.
- The entire embryonic period is considered a critical period because during this time all the major organs and physical structures are forming.
- The brain is also very sensitive during the fetal period.
Teratogens
Teratogens are environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that can produce a birth defect.
Common Teratogens?
Mothers illness
- Can be passed onto the baby
Mothers use of drugs
Alcohol use
- Causes FASD
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)
FASD is an umbrella term used to describe the effects that can occur in an individual who was exposed to alcohol during the prenatal period.
- It cannot be cured
Inadequate diet
Inadequate diet can result in reduction in growth of brain, smaller that average birth weight and length at birth
Age of viability
The age of viability is when the fetus reaches 22 weeks, and can be kept alive outside of the mother, though born prematurely.
Reflexes
Reflexes are unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli.
Rooting reflex
The rooting reflex causes a neonate to turn their head towards things that touch their cheeks.
Reflexes in neonates/newborns.
- Rooting reflex
- Sucking reflex
- Startle reflex
- Gag reflex
- Babinski reflex
Sucking reflex
The sucking reflex prompts infants to suck at things that touch their lips.
Startle reflex
The startle reflex is a series of movements in which an infant flings out their arms, fans their fingers, and arches their back in response to a sudden sound.
Gag reflex
The gag reflex is to help clear the infant’s throat
Babinski reflex
The Babinski reflex is when a baby’s toes fan out when the outer edge of the sole of the foot is stroked.
what is attachment?
Attachment is the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and an individual.
How is attachment formed with primary caregivers?
Human attachment grows through the responsiveness of infants’ caregivers to the signals the babies provide.
- Such as crying, smiling, reaching, and clinging.
Full attachment eventually develops as a result of the complex series of interactions between caregiver and child
Secure attachment style
Employs the mother as a type of home base. They explore independently but return to her, and when she leaves, will go into distress.
Avoidant attachment style
They don’t cry when the mother leaves, and they seem to avoid her when she returns, as if they’re indifferent to her.
Ambivalent attachment style
Display anxiety before they are separated and are upset when the mother leaves, but they show ambivalent reactions to her return while simultaneously hitting and kicking her.
Disorganized- disoriented attachment style
These children show inconsistent, often contradictory behaviour.
Bowlby’s Attachment Behavioral System
Believed that infants must be biologically programmed to emit behaviours that trigger affectionate responses from caregivers.
Adults/caregivers must be biologically programmed to respond to such behaviours with care and nurturance.
The greater the responsiveness of the caregiver to the child’s signals, the more likely the child will become securely attached.
Imprinting
Imprinting is a behaviour that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed.
Harlow’s monkey studies
Harlow gave an infant monkey the choice of cuddling a wire “monkey” that provided milk, or a soft, terry-cloth “monkey” that was warm but did not provide any milk.
- The monkey preferred the terry-cloth one because they could form an attachment to it.
Ainsworth’s strange Situation Task
The Ainsworth strange situation consists of a sequence of events involving a child and their mother. The mother leaves the room, a stranger comes in. They repeat this three times, and depending on how the baby would react would determine their attachment style.
Hazan and Shaver’s adult attachment styles
Infants attachment relationships lead to internal working models about adult relationships.
- Securely attached children grow up in well-adjusted adults with positive schemas about relationships and a solid sense of self worth.
- Insecurely attached children struggle with adult relationships because their sense of worth is inconsistent or absent
Initiative-versus-guilt stage
- Ages 3 to 6
- Children’s desire to act independently conflicts with the guilt that comes from the unintended and unexpected consequences of such behaviour.
- If parents react positively to children’s attempts at independence, they will help their children resolve the stage.
Trust vs. Mistrust
- Ages birth to 1 ½ years
- Infants develop feelings of trust if their physical requirements and psychological needs for attachment are consistently met and their interactions with the world are generally positive.
Erikson’s psychosocial stages
- Trust vs. Mistrust
- Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage
- Initiative-versus-guilt stage
- Industry-versus-inferiority stage
Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage
- Ages 1 ½ to 3 years old
- Toddlers develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged, or they experience shame, self-doubt, and unhappiness if they are overly restricted and protected.
Industry-versus-inferiority stage
- Ages 6 to 12
- During this period, increasing competency in all areas characterizes successful psychological development.
- Difficulties in this stage lead to feelings of failure and inadequacy.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
Sensorimotor
- Birth to 2 years
- They should develop object permanence, develop motor skills, but still have little to no capacity for symbolic representation
- They interact with the world physically.
Preoperational
- 2 to 7 years
- They should develop language and symbolic thinking and egocentric thinking
Egocentric thinking
Egocentric thinking is a way of thinking in which the child views the world entirely from their own perspective.
Concrete operational
- 7 to 12 years
- Should develop conversation and mastery of concept of conservation
Formal operational
- 12 years to adulthood
- They should develop abstract thinking
Vygotsky’s views on scaffolding
Vygotsky argues that cognitive development occurs as a consequence of social interactions in which children work with others to jointly solve problems.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on their own.
Scaffolding
Scaffolding is when parents, teachers or skilled peers assist a child by presenting information that is both new and within the ZPD.
- This provides support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth.
Vygotsky claims that scaffolding not only promotes the solution of specific problems, but also aids in the development of overall cognition.
Principle of conservation
The principle of conservation is the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects.
Changes in intelligence in older adulthood
Skills relating to fluid intelligence shows decline in late adulthood
Skills relating to crystallized intelligence remain steady and in some cases actually improve.
Fluid intelligence
Fluid intelligence involves information processing skills such as memory, calculations, and solving analogies.
Crystalized intelligence
Crystalized intelligence is based on the accumulation of information, skills and strategies through learned experience.
Changes in memory in older adulthood
Most evidence suggests that memory change is not an inevitable part of the aging process.
- When memory does show decline, it’s usually the losses of episodic memories.
Disengagement theory of aging
Aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels.
- This provides an opportunity for increased reflectiveness.
Activity theory of aging
Presents an alternative view of aging, holding that the people who age most successfully are those who maintain the interests, activities, and level of social interaction they experienced during middle adulthood.
