Development

Question 1

1. Development definition
2. 4 economic indicators of development
3. Happy indicator of development?
4. Social indicators of development?
5. What is the human development index?
6. 2 benefits of the HDI?
7. 3 negatives of the HDI?

Answer 1

1. The overall improvement in the social and economic well-being of a country.
2. GDP, trust indices, inclusive wealth index, GNP.
3. Happy Planet Index
4. Number of doctors per 1000 people, literacy rate, birth/death rate, infant mortality rate.
5. It’s a summary measure of a average achievement in key dimensions of human development.
6. Measures a broad range of information
   b. Uses social and economic data

Question 2

1. Rostow’s development theory?
2. Name and explain each stage.

Answer 2

1. He claims that development occurs in various phases that are related to the economy.

2a. 1st - Traditional society: economy mainly agrarian, limited tech, subsistence farming, primary sector jobs.

2nd - Preconditions for take off: societal changes which enable sustained economic growth, infrastructure, agricultural productivity, industrialization improvements.

3rd - Take off: rapid economic growth, industrialization, increased productivity, tech advancements, new industries, jobs, urbanization, modern manufacturing.

4th - Drive to maturity: economy further diversifies, increased specialisation of tech, innovation.

5th - Age of High Mass consumption: society is fully developed, is affluent, mass production and consumption, majority of population enjoy high living standards.

Question 3

1. Sen’s theory of development?
2. 2 Weaknesses of HDI?
3. State 7 key areas of development?

Answer 3

1. He claims that development is enhanced by democracy and the protection of human rights. Involves improvement in quality of life and the people’s’ freedom to pursue their goals.
2. Doesn’t include income inequality, doesn’t measure political freedom, environmental sustainability and gender equality.
3. Meeting basic needs, economic growth, environment/ sustainable development, political and social freedoms, well-functioning institutions, fairer income distribution, reduction of poverty.

Question 4

Political and Social Freedoms

1. What indicators can be used to measure this?
2. A country that has high Political and Social Freedoms.
3. A country that has low Political and Social Freedoms.
4. Limitations of this indicator?

Answer 4

Political and Social Freedoms

1. No. of doctors, standard of living, clean water access - link to these freedoms are they relate to social equity.
2. Cuba has 8.42 doctors per 1000 people, one of the highest in the world. Italy has 8.01 doctors per 1000 people.
3. Somalia has 0.02 doctors per 1000 people
4. No. doctors may not link to social freedoms of the population is not burned by lack of doctors. These freedoms don’t essentially include economic factors which can influence poverty, unemployment etc.

Question 5

Well-functioning institutions

1. What indicators can be used to measure this?
2. A country that has well-functioning institutions.
3. A country that has low functioning institutions.
4. Limitations of this indicator?
5. Effectiveness of this indicator?

Reduction of poverty

1. What indicators can be used to measure this?
2. A country that has high Reduction of poverty?
3. A country that has low Reduction of poverty?
4. Limitations of this indicator?
5. Effectiveness of this indicator?

Answer 5

Well-functioning institutions

1. Corruption perception index (CPI) - measures perceived corruption in countries.
   Rule of Law Index (ROL) - evaluates extent of a countries legal systems’ impartiality.
2. Low corruption - Denmark ,NZ, Finland, Switzerland.
3. High corruption - Somalia, South Sudan, Angola.
4. Both indices are perception based, focus on specific aspects of development don’ capture social well being, healthcare, education.
5. CPI and ROL valuable as they reflect quality and effectiveness of countries institutions. Strong institutions characterized by low corruption and robust rule as they are essential for economic growth, political stability and protection of rights.

Reduction of poverty

1. Poverty headcount ratio - measures proportion of pop living below national poverty line.
   Multidimensional poverty index (MPI) - assesses poverty by considering multiple deprivations in health, education, living standards.
2. Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Australia, Japan has low pov headcount and MPI.
3. South Sudan, Niger, Afghanistan have high poverty headcounts and MPI’s.
4. Provides partial view of development, poverty line varies across regions so cross-country comparisons are difficult.
5. Provide insights into extent and depth of poverty within a society, these ratios and scores generally indicate progress in reducing poverty. Helps assess the impact of poverty reduction policies, social safety nets and economic development efforts.

Question 6

Fairer income distribution

1. What indicators can be used to measure this?
2. A country that has Fair income distribution?
3. A country that doesn’t have Fair income distribution?
4. Limitations of this indicator?
5. Effectiveness of this indicator?

Answer 6

Fairer income distribution

1. Gini Coefficient - measures income inequality within a country, ranges from 0 (perfect quality) to a 100 (perfect inequality).
   Palma ratio - compares the income share of the richest 10% of the pop to income share of poorest 40%.
2. Finland (27.3), Iceland (26.1), Slovenia (24.6)
3. South Africa (63), Namibia (59.1), Zambia (57.1).
4. Cultural variations - income distribution norms can vary between cultures and regions.
   Data inaccuracy - can be subject to manipulation or inaccuracies particularly in countries with weak institutions.
5. Low gini coefficient and Palma ration generally indicate fairer income distribution, which can be associated with a more equitable and socially cohesive society.

Question 7

1. How has perceptions of development changed?
2. 3 factors that inhibit development?
3. How does poor management inhibit development?
4. How does corruption inhibit development?
5. How does political instability inhibit development?

Answer 7

1. Moved towards a focus on human welfare, thinking of health and income as a joint concept, hunger and geographical patterns of malnutrition.
2. Poor management, corruption and political instability.
3. If governments can’t manage maintaining and building infrastructure, wisely raising and spending finance, creating laws and business practices that encourages investment and initiative that honour property rights development will not be stimulated.
4. Involves bribery, embezzlement, fraud which undermines social and economic development by fostering inequality. It creates inefficiencies, enables private gain which can lead to poor infrastructure, poor education and health systems and economic instability.
5. Shortens policymakers horizons, economic stagnation, corruption and unrest, short term solutions, crises, disruption.

Question 8

1. What was Botswana’s development originally like?
2. How has poor management impacted development in Botswana?
3. How is Ugandan development hindered by poor management?
4. What factors does Zimbabwe have that are conducive to economic growth and development (3)?
5. How does poor management influence Zimbabwe’s development (3).

Answer 8

1. Exception economic growth for 14 years, engaged in projects to boost economic and energy needs.
   a. aimed on enhancing their stature as a regional powerhouse.
   b. has one of the most progressive policies in the world.
   c. admired for their economic growth rates.
2. Experienced severe power and water shortages due to poor planning in public service sector.
   b. Ability to implement policies has been short.
   Many projects are not completed within budget or desired scope.
   c. Money set aside for future development is used now which hinders future growth and delays other projects.
3. National development hindered by a lack of strong political commitment to effective governance, causes poor decision making and policy implementation.
   - Uganda doesn’t embrace meetings between east Africa presidents to promote regional integration.
   - tariff barriers, such as restrictions on goods like sugar, disrupts trade flows and creates uncertainty for Ugandan businesses.
   - Inefficient trade processes, as seen with conflicting statements from trade authorities, hinder the smooth flow of goods.
   - Businesses involved in political matters can be impacted by favoritism, corruption, lack of transparency etc.
4. well-educated population, literacy rate over 90%, abundant natural resources (gold, diamond, platinum, coal).
5. Early 2000 land reform programme which wanted to redistribute land to black Zimbabweans dispossessed during colonial era was poorly implemented - caused decline in agricultural production - impacted major section of their economy.
   - Economic mismanagement policies on their mismanaged: price controls, currency controls, and excessive government spending. But led to inflation, goods and services shortages + decline of their currency.
   - Weak institutions: includes the judiciary, the legislature, and the regulatory bodies. Makes it difficult to enforce contracts, protect property rights, promote fair competition.

Question 9

1. What is corruption?
2. 6 issues linked to corruption.
3. How does corruption impact development in Lebanon (1)?
4. In Somalia?

Answer 9

1. Abuse of power for private gain, involving behaviours such as bribery, embezzlement or fraud.
2. Economic instability: Corruption distorts economic development and creates inefficiencies.
   b. Political instability: If citizens perceive that their leaders are corrupt, they are less likely to respect or follow laws, leading to social unrest e.g. Lebanon.
   c. Social inequality: poor public resource distribution, can exacerbate income inequality and social tensions.
   d. Erosion of trust.
   e. Environmental degradation: corrupt practices can facilitate illegal practices, which may hinder the enforcement of environmental regulations
   f. Lack of foreign investments: Businesses are less likely to invest in countries where corruption is present.
3. Negligence of Lebanese gov: be seen from the August 4th, 2020, explosion on The Harbour of Beirut. This was a result of the failed Taif agreement.
4. 2012 World Bank report alleged that $130 million or 68% of funds received over 2009 and 2010 was unaccounted for.
   - July 2023 UN monitoring group on SOmalia accused a presidential adviser Mohamed Ganjab of receiving a portion of Somalia’s frozen state assets that had been recovered from abroad.
   - Corruption is exacerbated by the absence of a functional government, a lack of resources and administrative capacity, weak leadership and a limited ability to pay public officials.

Question 10

1. How does political instability inhibit development?
2. Evidence in Somalia. (3)
3. Evidence in Pakistan. (4)
4. Country that is an exception to this?

Answer 10

1. Political instability hinders the economic growth of a state.​
   b. The continuous switch in policy creates uncertainty for the future of a state.​
   c. Long-term growth projects are unattainable. ​
   d. In a politically unstable environment, governments are unable to focus on the growth of the state. ​
   e. It also has social effects, demoralises the public. ​
2. Blocked progress on health improvements.
   - 400,000 of the 6.6 million Somalis in need of aid are facing famine-like conditions.
   - 1.8 million children are at risk of acute malnutrition in 2023.
3. • Not fully democratic, illegitimate government. Voting disputes in 2013 ​
     - Assassination attempts: former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in 2007, political violence.
     - Seize of control by Pakistani Taliban.
     - Separatist movements creating conflict and unrest.
4. Ethiopia ranks 11th on the political instability index, yet it has still seen great economic growth.​
   - The GDP has risen exceptionally in recent years. Growing by nearly 10% each year, one of the highest rates in the world. ​
   - Its HDI has also grown from 0.287 to 0.498 since 2000. ​

Question 11

1. Why are debt crises common in LEDC’s?
2. Causes of the debt crisis?
3. Scale of the debt crisis?
4. Effect of debt on developing nations?
5. Possible solutions to the debt crisis?
6. Obstacles to these solutions?

Answer 11

1. They don’t make sustainable systems, so over-reliant on foreign aid and finance, IO’s such as world bank support poorer countries initiatives to improve development yet when they require resources needed it’s not in the interest of MEDC’s so not sufficiently required. They have to continually borrow more money to pay for previous support, creating a loop.
2. International siphoned off onto developing states.
   Odious debt - unfair debt resulting from illegitimate loans.
   Mismanaged lending - this is due to poor spending and lending as well as inflation.
   Corruption and embezzlement by the elite in developing countries.
3. In africa 2002 they had $295 in debt.
   Around $153 billion owed in debt to IMF and World Bank.
   5,000,000 people have lost their lives in Sub-saharan Africa because of debt.
   Poor countries are told by the IMF and World Bank to pay around 20-25% of their export earnings towards debt repayment.
4. Debt becomes a burden, creates limited access to financing, rises borrowing costs, devalues currency and slugs growth.
   3.3 Billion people live in countries that spend more on interest payments than on education of health.
   Countries divert resources from social provisions to repay debt.
5. Improve tax collection to reduce borrowing needs.
   (may need tax reform).
   Manage borrowing and lending better.
   Increased accountability to improve the behaviour or borrowers and lenders - allows domestic citizens and parliaments to provide incentives for governments to improve debt contraction.
6. Political challenges and social resistance - hinders implementation of reforms.
   Global economic conditions e.g. commodity price fluctuations, interest rate movements which can hinder economic recovery.
   Credibility issues - can make it difficult to rejoin markets.
   Inequality - resolution such as austerity policies can exacerbate socio-economic inequalities.

Question 12

1. What type of social factor is a significant inhibitor of development?
2. 5 effects of the expulsion of the Asian community on Ugandan development by Idi Amin in 1972.
3. How are discrimination issues affecting development in Saudi Arabia?
4. What mechanism is being used to help this and how?
5. How can fewer children support development?
6. Therefore, how can culture affect development? + example

Answer 12

1. Discrimination
2. • Destroyed significant proportion of the countries’ tax base, created a shortage of skilled workers.
   • Damaged trade links that were vital to keep industries functioning.
   • Uganda’s international reputation was tarnished and capital inflows into the country stagnated.
   • Asian businesses were handed over to Ugandans however many who took ownership of the businesses didn’t have the skills or knowledge to run these firms.
     GDP of Uganda fell by 5% between 1972 and 1975
3. 60% of women in Saudi Arabia have a university degree but only one in six of them work.
   Saudi women weren’t able to drive until 2018.
   Huge amounts of their salaries used to go to their drivers.
   Every Saudi company that employs women has to create a separate working space for them. Creates a barrier between men and women.
4. online job market Glowork was formed by young Saudi entrepreneurs to bring empowerment to women and increase diversity in the Saudi workforce.
   
   • Glo work helps to remove logistical and cultural barriers that hinder women looking for jobs.
   • Saudi ministry of Labour supports glo works initiative.
5. poor households can invest more in health and education of each child, equipping next generation with the health, nutrition and education that can lift living standards in future years.
   
   • Women need to be given education and autonomy as they will have a choice between pursuing careers or remaining at home.
     This is important as some countries have seen their population double or triple without their economies keeping pace.
6. Some cultures encourage women to be domesticated, have lots of children which affects development.
   
   • Hinduism has been cited as a reason of preventing India’s development however the recent growth of India’s economy proves otherwise.
     Racism and abuse has historically been legitimized because of superiority beliefs over other countries.

Question 13

1. Define post-development theory and explain it.
2. Institutional factors can affect development, name some of these institutions.
3. State some ways the world bank inhibits development.
4. State some ways the world bank promotes development.
5. Outline one of the main criticisms of the world bank and IMF (3).

Answer 13

1. holds the concept and practice of development is a reflection of Western-Northern hegemony over the rest of the world. This theory argues there is no universal model of development.
2. UN, IMF, World Bank, WTO.
3. In LEDCs these institutions impede economic development by siphoning funds from productive uses, discourage investors, increase costs for consumers and producer.
4. One IMF instrument is the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility established in 1999 to provide poor countries with low-interest loans.
   The World Bank (IBRD) and IMF lead the effort
   to achieve UN Millennium Goals, and they
   provide development assistance to poor countries.
   In 2010, the World Bank (IBRD) committed a
   record $44.2 billion in loans to LDCs for 164
   projects to provide education, health, electricity,
   environmental protection, and clean water.
5. Some view IMF and WB efforts as methods to expand western capitalism.
   Over-reliance on these organizations prevents the development of lasting and sustainable progress.
   In IMF US has 17% of voting rights - there is disparate power.

Question 14

1. environmental factors that affect development are?
2. How do resources impact development?
3. How does location impact development?
4. How does climate change impact development?
5. Example where a country’s development is limited due to environmental factors.
6. 3 ways the 2022 floods in Pakistan affected its development.

Answer 14

1. Resources, location, climate change.
2. Some countries have more natural resources that can be exploited for economic growth e.g. minerals, water, forests, arable land for cultivation. These are necessary for primary and secondary industries.
3. Access to major rivers and oceans allows for trade and transportation of goods, countries with flat and fertile land can sustain larger populations than those in mountains. Climate can also cause harmful natural disasters. Being landlocked prevents trade and globalisation.
4. Climate change causes more natural disasters that disproportionately impact poorer and less developed nations as they have a reduced capacity to respond to these events.
5. Democratic republic of congo - has most of the world’s coltan, precious material for phone manufacturing. However most of it is extracted by richer nations thus Congo can’t benefit from it.
6. The floods damaged most of the water systems in affected areas.
   They caused $15.2 billion in economic losses.
   Over 20 million people required humanitarian assistance.

Question 15

1. Explain Rostow’s modernization theory.
2. Explain each step.
3. What is the dependency theory?
4. What were the Structural Adjustment Programmes? (SAPs)
5. What did the SAPs become to be known as? Who coined this term and when?

Answer 15

1. It is a 5 step linear process that leads to economic growth.
2. ○ 1st stage - traditional society, primarily agrarian, low tech level.
   ○ 2nd stage - emergence of conditions needed for development. By influence of trade, communication, subsistence farming, more manufacturing jobs.
   ○ 3rd stage - take off stage rapid economic growth.
   ○ 4th stage - Drive to maturity. Economic growth spreads. Increased specialization diversifying the economy.
   ○ 5th stage - High mass consumption, welfare systems fully developed, trade expands. Majority of jobs are tertiary. Developed countries exploit the developing countries who are still in manufacturing stage.
3. The development of the West was only due to its capitalist pursuit, this capitalism in turn is only a mechanism to exploit the underdeveloped and restrain them from developing.
4. Programmes aimed at reducing inflation and increasing economic growth. They were economic policies for developing countries promoted by the IMF and WB, countries that followed SAPs were entitled to receive loans from these organisations.
5. The washington consensus coined by John Williamson 1989.

Question 16

1. 2 reasons the Washington consensus was criticized.
2. Give 1 example of this.
3. 4 things that give Africa the potential to develop.
4. State the 4 approaches for developing an economy.
5. Explain what trade liberalization and export orientation is and how it is beneficial.

Answer 16

1. Argued free trade is not always the best interest of developing countries as it can produce low income growth as countries aren’t protected by tariffs etc.
   For public sector industries, privatisation can mean companies ignore wider social objectives.
2. 1990s - World Bank pressured Bolivia to privatise its water industry, causing water supplies to be cut from poorest members of society.
3. Large supply of minerals, increasing population, huge market in independent countries to negotiate deals outside the continent, increase in military links (China has ties with 45 African countries, oil rich Arab nations setting up military bases in the Gulf).
4. Trade liberalization and export orientation, tourism, entrepreneurship and a knowledge economy.
5. Countries open their markets for inflow of foreign goods and promote free trade. Opening up the economy, focusing on exports encourages innovation and facilitates transfer of skills and technology enhancement.

Question 17

1. Explain how tourism can develop an economy.
2. Explain how entrepreneurship can.
3. Explain how a knowledge economy can.
4. Explain the circular economy.
5. What was the Uruguay round?
6. Christine Lagarde - 2 things she believes should be changed to develop society.

Answer 17

1. Currency spent by visitors brings foreign exchange, helps develop infrastructure, provides added revenues for industries such as aviation and telecommunications.
2. Helps develop an economy by creating jobs and making good use of capital from investors. Successful entrepreneurs can create products and services that add to the GNP of a country.
3. Based on the production, distribution and use of knowledge and information. Creates a workforce able to adapt to rapid changes in technology, involves advances in higher education, technology and innovation.
4. A system devised o ensure the production process allows for the recycling of materials and products.
5. One of the largest trade negotiations in history. 7 and a half years, 123 participating countries. Was significant in modernizing and expanding rules of the international trading system, catalysed creation of the WTO.
6. Climate change and rising inequalities. $5 trillion is spent on subsidies to burn fossil fuels, instead it should be invested into health, education, hospitals and infrastructure.

Question 18

1. 5 factors of the Nordic model.
2. Issues with Norway’s system (3).
3. Compare Norway to 3 other countries.
4. Universal Basic Income is?
5. How can it develop a society?
6. 3 advantages of globalization.

Answer 18

1. Receive universal healthcare, low corruption levels, female inclusion in workforce, 70% of population contributes to workforce, high quality of education.
2. Nordic countries have some of the highest levels of Co2 emissions in the world. The severity of their emissions are only marginally better than the US, Saudi Arabia and Australia. Ecologists say a sustainable level of resource use is 7 tonnes of material items per person per year but on average Scandinavians use 32 tonnes per year.
3. Happiness in Costa Rica rivals Scandinavia with 60% less resource use. Italians live longer lives with half the resource use of Norway, Germany has higher education levels with 30% less resource use.
4. A government programme in which every adult receives a set amount of money regularly. Aims to alleviate poverty.
5. Can help to create a tax plan in which revenues would provide a stream of government income to every person rich and poor.
6. Creates interdependence through trade, investment and cultural exchange. Creates shared interests. Reduces the likelihood of conflict.

Question 19

1. 5 disadvantages of globalization.
2. 3 advantages of globalization
3. 3 impacts of globalization on states?
4. Impact of economic and cultural globalization on private groups e.g. MNCs?
5. Impact of globalization in global political interaction.
6. Explain one way to measure inequality.

Answer 19

1. Can create blanket policies which don’t fully consider a country’s differences, infringement of sovereignty, dilution of culture, can have an exploitation of labour and resources, domestic job loss creating issues/ tensions through the likes of Trump.
2. promotes interdependence among nations through trade, investment, and cultural exchange, creating shared interests and reducing the likelihood of conflict.
3. Economic globalization has created freer movement of capital and greater access to cheap labour e.g. German cars built in Mexico (Audi).

Political globalization has given citizens greater access to powerful groups outside their own nation. These groups may have influence over nation states such as human rights abuses being documented by UN or Red Cross.

Cultural globalization gives citizens access to rights, norms, beliefs etc.

4. Have impacted MNCs by increasing trade and investment opportunities and spreading business ideas beyond a nation’s borders e.g. Jack Ma - Chinese entrepreneur founded Alibaba after visiting the US.
5. Reduced potential for armed conflict as national economies are dependent on each other. E.g. China is one of Japan’s main export partners however the two countries have tense diplomatic relations over territory but armed conflict would result in massive economic problems for both countries.
6. Gini index, it is calculated by comparing the income of wealth distribution of an equal society to the actual income or wealth distribution of another country.

Question 20

1. 3 limitations of the GINI index.
2. Describe the US economy.
3. Describe China economy.
4. How much richer is US 1% than the 99%?
5. Reason that people are leaning towards heavy handed systems?
6. Argument for inequality?

Answer 20

1. Doesn’t give indication of how income and wealth are distributed across genders, race, different education backgrounds.
   Doesn’t tell us how easy or difficult it is to escape poverty.
   Doesn’t give any insight as to how a particular society reached its present level of inequality.
2. A liberal democracy, market-based economy, factors of production are privately owned.
3. Contempt for democracy, heavy state intervention in majority of affairs.
4. 30x - est 2016.
5. Free market capitalism makes it difficult for equal opportunity and income distribution, US income inequality has steadily widened under both Democratic and Republican administrations. China’s inequality has been declining.
6. • Some contend that income inequality drives economic growth and that redistributive transfers weaken the incentive to work, in turn depressing productivity, reducing investment, and ultimately harming the wider community.

Question 21

1. Hobbs perspective on human nature that inhibits us from achieving equality.
2. How can social inequality be linked to conflict.
3. What may global inequality have contributed to?
4. Why is there inequality in Chile?
5. Why did this lead to demonstrations?
6. How much waste globally in 2021? Expected to double when?

Answer 21

1. Human nature - nasty and brutish, states are highest operating level of power, power comes from competition between these states. So this naturally encourages competition enabling inequality.
2. Social disparities breed resentment, hostility and strife. Combinations of endemic poverty and widening income disparities create ethnic and tribal conflicts.
3. state failure, humanitarian crises and the growth of new ‘war’s and rise in terrorism.
4. • 2018 governement study showed the richest Chileans had an income nearly 14x greater than the poorest. It is the most unequal in the OECD countries, with an income gap that’s 65% higher than the OECD average.
   • Neighbouring protests in sections of Peru against a political crisis over ant-corruption efforts and the Ecuadorean people had taken to the streets demanding an end to austerity measures.
   • The country’s per capita income would give Chileans over $2,000 a month, most make $550 a month or less
5. • There was a long standing growing disconnect between Childe’s political elite and the rest of the population. This is due to the unequal access to healthcare, education, further inequality in the way people are treated.
6. 2.2 billion tonnes of waste in 2021, may nearly double in 2050

Question 22

1. Explain Taiwan circular economy initiative and 3 things they have done.
2. 3 criticisms of the circular economy.
3. Positives of circular economy in promoting development.
4. 3 successes of the circular economy.
5. 3 examples of Circular economy failures.

Answer 22

1. • Taiwan is adopting good circular economy and waste management policies, they have an eco ark pavilion which is a symbol of how to correctly dispose of waste.
     a. covid 19 wards were created for patients with waste, walls were made from recycled material.
     b. Fines implemented for people who litter.
2. Implementation challenges: realist theorist Hans Morgenthau argues anarchic nature of international system makes cooperation difficult, collective action.
   b. Economic concerns of initial costs- high costs can perpetuate global economic inequalities.
   c. Global supply chain issues - globalization theorists might argue that the dependence of a circular economy on global supply chains could enhance or challenge the power dynamics between developed and developing nations.
3. Sustainable development as it emphasizes integration of economic and social goals with environmental goals.
   b. Resource security - realist theorists argue circular economy reduces dependence on scarce resources, could mitigate resource related conflicts.
   c. Enhanced social inclusion as it creates green jobs, supports local communities, addresses environmental injustice and can contribute to more equitable distribution of benefits.
4. The Netherlands - the Dutch have integrated a circular economy by integrating economic growth, social well-being and environmental protection.
   Sweden - they efficiently use and reuse resources to create a circular economy.
   Germany - ecological modernization through integrating environmental considerations into economic structures. Also have many sustainable practices.
5. US - Fragmented waste management system in US, lack of coordination and collective action in managing shared resources diminishes ability to have a circular economy.
   b. Russia - they’re focused on resource intensive industries such as energy, lack of incentive and diversification into a circular economy.
   c. South Africa - social fragmentation, socioeconomic disparities and fragmented governance are obstacles to building a circular economy.