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GED > Development > Flashcards

Development Flashcards

1
Q

what is development?

A

the study of the development of organisms

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2
Q

Arabidopsis

A

thale cress

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3
Q

dictyostelium

A

slime mould

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4
Q

hydra

A

cnidarian

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5
Q

planarians

A

flatworms

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6
Q

caenorhabditis

A

nematode worm

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7
Q

drosophila

A

fruit fly

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8
Q

parhyale

A

amphipod crustacean

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9
Q

strongylocentrotus

A

sea urchin

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10
Q

ciona

A

tunica / sea squirt

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11
Q

brachiostoma

A

amphioxus

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12
Q

danio

A

zebrafish

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13
Q

xenopus

A

clawed frog

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14
Q

gallus

A

chick

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15
Q

mus

A

mouse

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16
Q

homo

A

human

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17
Q

what is the difference between a protostome and a deutosterome

A

proto - mouth forms first
deuto - mouth forms second

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18
Q

what is the difference between a protozoan and a metozoan organism?

A

proto = first or primitive life
meta = multicellular modern animals

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19
Q

what is the difference between a diploblastic and a triploblastic organism?

A

diplo = 2 tissue layers
triplo = 3 tissue layers

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20
Q

what do the terms endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm refer to?

A

endo - inner tissue layer - internal organs
meso - middle tissue layer - notochord, muscle, kidney, blood
ecto - outer tissue layer - skin, nervous systems

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21
Q

what is the notochord?

A

the first tissue to differentiate in chordates
‘chord in the back’

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22
Q

what is a chordate?

A

an animal with a chordate

23
Q

what is the difference between a urochordate and a cephalochordate?

A

uro - animals with notochords in tail
cephalo - animals with notochords extending into head

24
Q

what is an echinoderm?

A

prickly skin
- group of animals e.g. sea urchins

25
Q

how do cells acquire their fate?

A
  • inheritance of cell fate determinants
  • asymmetric inheritance of cytoplasmic determinants
26
Q

what is descriptive embryology?

A
  • aiming to define normal embryonic development with minimal disruption to the process
  • shows what happens, not how it happens
27
Q

what is experimental embryology?

A
  • aiming to define how embryonic development occurs
  • gains mechanistic insight into how cells gain their fate
  • requires you to perturb normal developmental proceses
28
Q

what is morphogenesis?

A

the process by which form is generated

29
Q

what is gastrulation?

A

the morphogenetic process by which endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm layers reach their final positions in the embryo

30
Q

what is neuralation?

A

the morphogenetic process by which the nervous system begins to form, e.g. neural tube formation

31
Q

what is a blastomere?

A

a cell in the early embryo

32
Q

what is a fate map?

A

the assessment of the fate of a cell or group of cells based on lineage labelling
- descriptive embryology

33
Q

what is a specification map?

A

the assessment of what a cell or group of cells will form if removed from their embryonic environments
- experimental embryology

34
Q

what does it mean for a cell or tissue to be ‘determined’?

A

a cell or tissue is determined if it will still develop according to its fate, even when transplanted into a different site in the embyro

35
Q

what does it mean if the fate map is equivalent to the specification map?

A
  • cells within embryo do not rely on cell-cell communication to achieve normal fate
  • mosaic development - asymmetric inheritance of cytoplasmic determinants
36
Q

what does it mean if the fate map is not equivalent to the specification map?

A
  • cells receive instructions from its environment at a later point of development prior to assuming normal fate
  • regulative development - cell-cell communication / induction
37
Q

what is competence?

A

the range of cell fates, which can be achieved by a cell or group of cells given the appropriate conditions
- e.g. a cell may be competent to give rise to many cell types that it would not normally be specified to form

38
Q

what is induction?

A

the process by which a cell emits signals to neighbouring cells to change their fate

39
Q

what did the organizer experiment tell us?

A
  • dorsal mesoderm is determined by early gastrula stage
  • induction of muscle and neural tissue
  • ventral ectoderm and mesoderm are competent to become neural and somatic tissue
40
Q

what is the organizer?

A
  • the dorsal mesoderm at the gastrula stage
  • induces overlying ectoderm to become neural and induces neighbouring mesoderm to become muscle
41
Q

what is the nieuwkoop centre?

A

the region of the early dorsal vegetal pole in blastula stage which induces the organiser (activates Wnt signalling)

42
Q

what is a homeotic mutation?

A

a mutation that results in the transformation of one body part into another

43
Q

what are hox genes?

A

a family of genes that contains homeodomain - evolutionarily conserved

44
Q

what are the 3 ways in which genes can duplicate?

A
  • tandem gene duplication
  • segmental duplication
  • whole genome duplication events
    either via autotetraploidy or allotetraploidy
  • auto = duplication of genome through improper meosis
  • allo = hybridization between two separate species - followed by failure in meiosis
45
Q

what are the 4 steps involved with the 2R hypothesis?

A
  • an ancestral cluster undergoes a duplication event
  • gene loss events occur to lose some genes
  • 2nd round duplication event occurs
  • second set of gene loss events occurs
46
Q

what are the 3 pieces of evidence that hox gene expression gives positional identity along the anterio-posterios axis?

A
  • expression pattern
  • comparative embryology
  • gene knockout experiments
47
Q

what are homologous genes?

A

genes that share a common ancestral gene

48
Q

what are paralogous genes?

A

duplicated genes within a single genome
- duplicates known as paralogues

49
Q

what are orthologous genes?

A

the same gene present in different organisms

50
Q

what is gene redundancy?

A

a situation where no phenotype change is observed when a gene is mutated because another gene (usually a paralogue) can replace the mutated gene

51
Q

what is potency?

A

the range of cell fates available to a cell or group of cells
(potency + competence have similar meanings)

52
Q

what are the different levels of cell potency?

A
  • totipotent - cell can give rise to all embryonic cells, including extraembryonic cells + tissues
  • pluripotent - cell can give rise to most, but not all cells of embryo
  • bipotent - cell can give rise to only 2 cell types
  • unipotent - cell can give rise to only 1 cell type
53
Q

what does the waddington landscape represent?

A

the idea that cell potency decreases with time - i.e. starts out totipotent, and decreases over time to become unipotent
- halting development can maintain cells in a pluripotent state long term in culture
- nuclear reprogramming studies - reprogramming differentiated cells back to an embryonic pluripotent state

54
Q

why are hES and iPS cells valuable?

A
  • used to study human embryonic development in vitro
  • used to generate organs in vitro
  • used to model genetic diseases in vitro
  • harnessed to treat genetic diseases in humans

GED (3 decks)

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