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development Flashcards

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1
Q

Hindbrain

A

The first part of the brain to develop. Consists of the cerebellum and medulla.

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2
Q

Midbrain

A

Region between the hindbrain and the forebrain; responsible for processing information from the eyes and ears. It is also the centre for reflexes and helps you to move in response to what you see and hear.

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3
Q

Forebrain

A

The most recently developed part of the brain, responsible for our most complex functions - thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language,

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4
Q

Cerebellum

A
  • Can be seen in the foetus at about 6 weeks
  • A year after birth it is three times the size.
  • Responsible for movement. balance and coordination. Important for some voluntary tasks such as walking and writing.
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5
Q

Medulla

A

The base of the brainstem; controls automatic functions that are essential for survival such as heartbeat and breathing.

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6
Q

Early neural connections

A

Of great importance to development and are reinforced by use, so it is important that babies get plenty of stimulation

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7
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A
  • Birth -> 2 years
  • Infants use their senses and movements to get information about their world.
  • They learn by linking what they see, hear, touch, taste or smell to objects they are using, for example by grasping and sucking objects.
  • They begin with reflex actions and then learn to control their movements.
  • Develop object permanance at around 6 months.
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8
Q

Object permanance

A

The awareness that things continue to exist even when we can’t see them. Fully developed in infants at 18-24 months old.

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9
Q

Pre-operational stage

A
  • 2 -> 7 years old
  • The child can now form mental representations
  • Children start to play “pretend” and can use symbols to represent things that are not present.
  • They develop animism
  • Children are egocentric in this stage.
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10
Q

Symbolic function substage

A

Piaget’s first substage of preoperational thought, in which the child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present (between about 2 and 4 years of age).

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11
Q

Intuitive thought substage

A
  • Piaget’s second substage of preoperational thought, in which children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions (between 4 and 7 years of age).
  • There is centration and irreversibility.
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12
Q

Egocentrism

A

The inability of children to see the world from any other viewpoint than their own.

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13
Q

Centration

A

The tendency of a child to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects.

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14
Q

Irreversibility

A

A child’s lack of understanding that an action can be reversed to return to the original state.

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15
Q

Concrete operational stage

A
  • 7 -> 11 years old
  • The child has decentred
  • Classification, seriation, reversibility and conservation are all fully developed
  • Can perform simple maths if they have concrete objects in front of them.
  • They have difficulty with abstract ideas such as morality
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16
Q

Symbolic play

A

A type of play in which a child uses one object to symbolically represent another.

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17
Q

Animism

A

The belief that inanimate objects have a conscious life.

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18
Q

Seriation

A

The ability to arrange objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume.

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19
Q

Classification

A

Naming and identifying objects according to size or appearance

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20
Q

Conservation

A

The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

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21
Q

Reversibility

A

The ability to understand that objects can be changed, but then returned back to their original form or condition

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22
Q

Formal operational stage

A
  • 12 years and above
  • Children can think logically about abstract ideas and complete complex cognitive functions.
  • Can see that actions have consequences
  • Understanding that they and others exist in the real world and separate from each other
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23
Q

Morality

A

Principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behavior.

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24
Q

Schema

A

A conceptual framework a person uses to make sense of the world

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25
Q

Assimilation

A

The process of using pre-existing knowledge to make sense of new knowledge (new information is added to an existing schema)

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26
Q

Accommodation

A

When a pre-existing schema is adjusted to fit new information

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27
Q

Equilibrium

A

A state of mental balance where a child’s schema can explain what they are experience

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28
Q

Disequilibrium

A

A state of mental imbalance where new information is needed to either adjust or create a schema

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29
Q

Ways to support sensorimotor development

A
  • They should be provided with a lot of stimulation and materials to practise skills and to build schemas.
  • Singing and rhythm can stimulate children and can help in language development.
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30
Q

Ways to support pre-operational development

A
  • Children must ‘do’ things to learn and to keep building schemas, rather than watching someone else performing actions.
  • Models, objects and visual aids such as drawings and diagrams can help learning, while instructions are kept short
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31
Q

Ways to support concrete operational development

A
  • Teachers can ask children to concentrate on more than one aspect of an issue.
  • Teachers can assume children can understand different viewpoints from their own, and so the teachers will structure tasks accordingly
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32
Q

Ways to support formal operational development

A
  • Children can discuss abstract concepts and be asked complex questions involving mental reasoning.
  • They should study different school subjects such as science and arts, and these can help them to distinguish the different ways of thinking about the world.
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33
Q

The readiness approach

A

Learning should be appropriate for the child’s stage of development.

34
Q

Discovery learning

A

When learning, children need to make their own discoveries in order to escape disequilibrium (through assimilation and accommodation).

35
Q

The role of a teacher

A
  • Facilitate rather than dominate the learning.
  • Provide suitable materials for discovery learning
  • Set appropriately challenging tasks
  • Encourage interaction by setting small group work. This will help a child to decentre.
36
Q

Adaptation

A

Using assimilation and accommodation to make sense of the world

37
Q

The development of intelligence

A

Through building schemas via adaptation and through the four stages of cognitive development

38
Q

Strengths of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

A
  • There is a lot of supporting evidence (eg. ‘Three Mountains Task’) - so it is reliable
  • Can be used in education - so good practical application
39
Q

Weaknesses of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

A
  • Some research shows that children go through the stages much earlier than Piaget suggests (Helen Bourke’s study)
  • The influence of social interactions or the cultural setting was not considered, which can affect the development of patterns of thought - can be considered reductionist
40
Q

Fixed mindset

A

The belief that our ability is innate - fixed in place and cannot be changed

41
Q

Growth mindset

A

The belief that our ability can change/improve through practice and effort

42
Q

Consequences of a fixed mindset

A
  • Reluctance to take on challenges
  • Possibility of becoming depressed
  • Less academic success
43
Q

Benefits of a growth mindset

A
  • Ability to learn from mistakes
  • Greater sense of self-worth
  • More goal driven
  • Responds well to feedback
  • Generally higher academic success
44
Q

Strength’s of Dweck’s mindset theory

A
  • Has good practical application to education. Parents and teachers can support students by praising effort rather than ability.
  • Experimental evidence such as Yeager and Dweck (2012) which found that low-achieving students who learned to use a growth mindset did better compared to a control group who did not have that learning.
45
Q

Weaknesses of Dweck’s mindset theory

A
  • The theory doesn’t explain why some students put little effort in and get good grades whilst other students make lots of effort but fail to make progress.
  • Many of the studies that look into mindset have been experiments and so have artificial settings. This reduces the ecological validity of the results.
46
Q

What are the two principles of Willingham’s learning theory?

A
  • Factual knowledge precedes skill
  • The importance of practice and effort
47
Q

Factual knowledge precedes skill

A

Knowing facts helps when building the skills of problem solving and reasoning, an issue with learning and developing skills is that previous knowledge is often needed.

48
Q

The importance of practice and effort

A

Practice and effort enable us to master knowledge and skills. It is important to practise enough to be able to do things automatically. This is necessary in order to leave enough working memory for learning new things. Practice is not the only thing that’s important - a skill must be repeated many times and kept up.

49
Q

Strategies to support cognitive development

A
  • Use problems that are within a student’s ability, but that also require some effort of development.
  • Teach a child to identify what they don’t understand. If a child is aware of what they find difficult they will know where to make effort to improve.
  • Also consider factors other than developmental level. For example, the student might not understand the task.
50
Q

Strategies to support physical development

A
  • Practise the movements in that order enough times to make the muscle commands automatic (to build a skill set)
  • Focus on the quality of the movement (the finer details) rather than how many repetitions you can do
51
Q

Strategies to support social development

A
  • Demonstrate appropriate social behaviour. The child will use social learning, where children imitate the behaviour of others in certain circumstances.
  • Teachers can plan for group work and parents can ensure children are interacting with others outside of school.
  • Teach self-regulation. This will help a child to control their emotions and impulses. It also increases school readiness (being prepared to learn)
52
Q

Strengths of Willingham’s learning theory

A
  • It has good practical application. The theory can be used in educational settings as well as at home to promote the development of children cognitively, physically and socially.
  • The ideas of the theory come from many areas of cognitive science, including neuroscience, memory theory, and cognitive development. This indicates the theory is reliable as it has a lot of scientific evidence.
53
Q

Weaknesses of Willingham’s learning theory

A
  • Willingham does not emphasise the importance of individual differences in learning., so Willingham’s strategies may not apply to everyone. This can be considered reductionist.
54
Q

Aim of Piaget and Inhelder

A

To find out at what age children decentre - become no longer egocentric.

55
Q

Sample of Piaget and Inhelder

A
  • 100 children
  • Ages 4-12
56
Q

Procedure of Piaget and Inhelder

A
  • The child sits at a table, presented in front are three mountains. The mountains were different, with snow on top of one, a hut on another and a red cross on top of the other.
  • The child could walk round the model, look at it, then sit down at one side.
  • A doll is then placed at various positions of the table.
  • The child is then shown 10 photographs of the mountains taken from different positions and asked to indicate which showed the dolls view.
57
Q

Results of Piaget and Inhelder (4 - 6 year olds)

A

Almost always chose a picture that represented what they could see and showed no awareness that the doll’s view would be different from this.

58
Q

Results of Piaget and Inhelder (6.5 - 7 year olds)

A

Frequently chose a picture different from their own view, but rarely chose the correct picture for the doll’s point of view.

59
Q

Results of Piaget and Inhelder (7+ year olds)

A

Consistently chose the correct picture that matched the viewpoint of the doll

60
Q

Conclusion of Piaget and Inhelder

A
  • Children up to about 7 years old were egocentric and they could not ‘see’ from a viewpoint other than their own. T
  • Towards the end of the pre-operational stage, the children were more able to think about someone else’s viewpoint.
  • Children have fully decentered (are not egocentric) at around 7-8 years old.
61
Q

Strengths of Piaget and Inhelder

A
  • Collected rich, in depth qualitative data: provided

a great deal of detail about what was done and, importantly, the results. Wrote about individual children.

  • Results were reliable: careful controls were in place to ensure that each child had the exact same experience which allowed for easier comparison and the ability to replicate the study - increasing its reliability.
62
Q

Weaknesses of Piaget and Inhelder

A
  • Piaget’s tasks at this stage may have underestimated the child’s abilities due to a number of factors including complicated language, unfamiliar materials, lack of context, and children misinterpreting the experimenter’s intention.
  • Helen Borke (1975) changed the task to make it easier for younger children and found that they decentered much quicker.
63
Q

Person praise

A

Praising an individual’s traits and qualities

64
Q

Process praise

A

Praises an individual’s behavior and effort

65
Q

Entity motivational framework

A

Similar to a fixed mindset. A belief that behaviour and ability are fixed because they result from a person’s nature.

66
Q

Incremental motivational framework

A

Similar to a growth mindset. A belief that effort drives behaviour and ability, which can change.

67
Q

Aims of Gunderson

A

To find out how parents’ use of process or person praise in early childhood can predict a child’s motivational framework in the future.

68
Q

Sample of Gunderson

A
  • 29 boys and 24 girls + their caregivers, took part in the study.
  • Of these children: 64% white, 17% black, 11% Hispanic and 8% from multiracial backgrounds.
69
Q

Procedure of Gunderson

A
  • At each visit, participants were asked to ‘go about a typical day’ in the home. The caregiver-child interactions were videotaped in 90-minute sessions.
  • They looked at parents’ use of praise at home when their children were 14 months, 26 months and 38 months old.
  • 5 years later, the children’s ideas about behaviour were measured and related to the type of praise they had received.
  • Researchers looked at a child’s gender and influences of the type of praise on later ideas
70
Q

Results of Gunderson

A
  • 3% of all parental comments to the child were praise.
  • Process praise was 18% of all praise & person praise was 16% (showing similar proportions.)
  • Boys recieved more process praise while girls recieved more person praise
  • A larger % of process praise the child reported more positive approaches to challenges and believed they could get better at things with effort.
  • A larger percentage of person praise did not influence children’s responses to the follow up questions.
71
Q

Conclusion of Gunderson

A

The amount of process praise (effort of the child) that parents gave their children between 14 and 38 months old was a predictor of children’s incremental (cognitive traits are changeable, effort is important) motivational frameworks at 7 to 8 years old.

72
Q

Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development

A

Piaget proposed that as children’s thinking becomes more advanced their understanding of moral problems deepens.

73
Q

Strengths of Gunderson

A
  • The study has good practical application. The findings can be used to encourage parents to use process praise so children will develop the belief that effort will lead to success.
  • Tthe researchers who videotaped and transcribed the data did not know that parental praise was the point of interest. This helped to avoid researcher bias in the gathering of the qualitative data.
74
Q

Weaknesses of Gunderson

A
  • The parents knew they were being observed so their behaviour might not have been entirely natural. This reduces the validity of the study.
  • The sample size was small - 53 children are not representative of every child so the results are difficult to generalise.
75
Q

Pre-conventional morality (stage 1)

A

The child obeys in order to avoid punishment. Actions that are punished are ‘wrong’.

76
Q

Pre-conventional morality (stage 2)

A

The child begins to consider their own self interest - the rewards that can be gained from doing an action.

77
Q

Conventional morality (stage 3)

A

This stage is about being seen as ‘good’ and conforming to social rules - wanting to be liked.

78
Q

Conventional morality (stage 4)

A

In this stage, the focus is on maintaining social order by obeying authority – this is seen as a duty.

79
Q

Pre-conventional morality (stage 5)

A

Laws are seen as social contracts which individuals enter into – so there can be differences in morality between individuals according to which laws they have agreed to. Democracy is an example of this.

80
Q

Pre-conventional morality (stage 6)

A

The understanding that moral reasoning is abstract and there are universal ethical principles that ‘must’ be followed. This stage emphasises right and wrong actions beyond individual laws.

81
Q

Weaknesses of Kohlberg

A
  • He used stories that were artificial and might not represent real thinking. They lack ecological validity.
  • The theory has been criticized for being gender-biased as only men were used when researching the stages – therefore the results lack generalisability to women.
82
Q

Strengths of Kohlberg

A

The theory is supported by experimental evidence which confirms the stages of moral development. Colby et al. (1983) re-interviewing Kohlberg’s participants at 3-4-year intervals, which shows reliability over time.

Psychology (7 decks)

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