Development Flashcards
1
Q
developmental psychology
A
examines our physical, cognitive, and social development across the lifespan; with a focus on 3 major issues:
- nature and nurture
- continuity and stages
- stability and change
- Aims to both describe and explain change
- Aims to predict future outcomes
- Aims to influence change
2
Q
nature and nurture*
A
How does our genetic inheritance (our nature) interact with our experiences (our nurture) to influence our development?
3
Q
continuity and stages*
A
What parts of development are gradual and continuous, like riding an escalator? What parts change abruptly in separate stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder?
4
Q
stability and change*
A
Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age
-Temperament is seen as very stable; this is why out of control 3 year old are likely to be teen smokers, criminals, gamblers
5
Q
stages of prenatal development
A
conception, germinal/zygote, embryonic, and fetal
6
Q
conception
A
Sperm (23 chromosomes) meets the egg (ovum) (23 chromosomes) and creates a zygote; that is process of conception
7
Q
germinal period
A
14 days, weeks 1-2
- starts at conception when zygote is formed and lasts until zygote is implanted in uterus
- aprx 60% of natural conceptions fail to implant because of issue will cell division
- at this phase, genetic makeup is set; determines by gametes
- start of cell division and growht
8
Q
embryonic phase
A
weeks 3-8
- cells divide and differentiate (ie, skin cells, hair cells, muscle cells); part of these will start to form connections of uterus and formation of placenta; nutrition and oxygen
- naural tube forms (will be brain/spine)
- begins to look human
- next 6 weeks, the embryo’s organs begin to form and function. The heart begins to beat.
9
Q
fetal phase
A
weeks 9-40
-development of organs, limbs, body structures(bones, muscles etc)
development of senses
-lots of brain development
-6th month, stomach develop, giving chance of survival for premature
10
Q
teratogen
A
“monster maker”
- enviro factor that contribute to brith defect
- maternal disease, pollutants, drugs, alcohol
damage influences by:
- timing of exposure, especially critical periods (stages in development where certain things are developing)
- amount of exposure
- genetics
- sex
- most common is alcohol
- FASD affect up to 4%
- physical feature on day 19 and 20 of gestation
- More at risk for psychiatric problems, criminal behaviour and unemployment
11
Q
why are infants helpless
A
- underdeveloped brain
- hypothesized due to trade off of head size and birth canal - related to bipedalism; called the obstetrical dilemma
12
Q
obstetrical dilemma
A
trade off of head size and size fo brith canal related to bipedalism
-eg, gorilla has much wider opening in bony structure; but they walk poorly on back legs
13
Q
age and brain size
A
2 year old brain 55% of size
6 year old brain 90% of size
14
Q
brain development
A
-do not create new brain cells; we create new neural pathways/connections between cells
- on day born, you have most of the brain cells you will ever have
- but nervous system is immature After birth, the branching neural networks that eventually enabled you to walk, talk, and remember had a wild growth spurt (FIGURE 5.5). This rapid development helps explain why infant brain size increases rapidly in the early days after birth
15
Q
blooming
A
period of rapid neural growth in brain
16
Q
pruning
A
period where neural connections are reduced
happens continuously and helps to make more efficient connections
17
Q
infant reflexes
A
rooting
-If you brush their face they will turn to side being brushed and open mouth; important for feeding
grasping
-if you touch palm they will close hand
startle reflex
-when arms and legs spring out, quickly followed by fist clenching and loud crying
18
Q
senses at birth
A
not fully developed
- vision least developed
- still show preference for faces tho
19
Q
preferential looking time
A
we infer babies spend more time looking at things they prefer
20
Q
habituation
A
decrease in responding with repeated stimulation
informs us if the baby can perceive differences between novel and old stimuli
21
Q
change detection paradigm
A
- train baby to turn when sounds change
- like the monkey things when sounds change
22
Q
fine motor skills
A
muscle in fingers, toes, eyes
-important for coordination of small actions like holding spoon or writing
23
Q
gross motor skills
A
focus on large muscle groups and large actions, like kicking a ball, maintaining balance, running etc
fine and gross motor skills develop at different times
24
Q
maturation
A
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behaviour, relatively uninfluenced by experience
maturation (nature) sets basic course of development; experience (nurture) adjusts it; genes and scenes interact
25
Jean Piaget theory of cognitive development
Offered framework for understanding and charting child development
-a developmental stage theory with sharp borders between stages; recognized as a limitation by jean
4 primary stages
- sensorimotor stage
- preoperational stage
- concrete operational stage
- formal operational stage
26
JP: how do humans come to acquire, construct and use knowledge
- not like adults
- children are active learners
- use schemas
- use dif things through the stages
27
Sensorimotor stage
(birth - 2 years)
- infants/toddlers know about world through movement and sensation (eg, hear, see, feel, touch, taste)
- perform basic actions, grasping, listening etc to gather info
- learn about object permanence (obtained at about 8 or 9 months)
- understand they can influence the world around them (if I throw this its over there)
- develop ability to use basic symbols and form enduring schemas (this is the start of ensign and the end of sensorimotor stage)
28
limitations on language in young children
mostly on vocal ability
| -when given tools to use non verbal language like sign language they show use and understanding much earlier than verbal
29
per operational stage
(2-7 years)
- begin to think symbolically (use words and picture to represent objects)
- still think in very concrete terms
- egocentric (fail to see perspective of others; ie, lack theory of mind)
- precausal thinking
- animism
- artificialism
- transductive reasoning
- centration
- conservation
- overregulation
30
theory of mind
can't understand perspective of others;
ie, everybody sees stuff the way they do
-eg, box of smarties, child will think it has smarties, when you show it has pencils, they will say they thought it had pencils, if you ask what another child will think it will have, they will again say pencils
-usually develops at about 4 years
-autistic usually have less developed theory of mind
31
precausal thinkning
- classic error of preoperational
- deficit in causal thinking
- lack of structure and understanding of cause and effect
32
animism
belief that everything is alive
- related to egocentric
- Eg, why did ball roll down the if they rolled down the hill it would be because they wanted to
- -if I'm alive, then so is everything else
33
Artificialism
benefit that natural events are caused by humans
- eg, its windy because someone is blowing hard; clouds are white because someone painted them
- don't understand where things come from and cause and effect
34
transduction reasoning
drawing a relationship between unrelated events
-Eg, heating up food in microwave, then doorbell rings, right after it rings the microwave timer is done; they might think that the doorbell ringing caused the microwave to finish
- can also be that they get stuff in wrong order (cause they don't understand cause and effect)
- eg, they put their rainboots on when they go splash in puddles, so on a sunny day they might put rainboots on and think now they can go splash
35
why are errors important to psychologists
Errors are important to psychologists to understand what's happening in the mind and how these children are thinking about the world and updating their understanding of the world
36
centration
focusing on 1 dimension or feature and ignoring all others
Eg, give them full cracker, give sibling 2 half crackers, they might say its not fair that they only got one
37
conservation
- awareness that altering somethings appearance does not change its basic properties
- ie, kids in preoperational stage don't understand that pouring milk into a tall narrow glass doesn't make it have more
Sometimes they start to get right answer if repeated a lot but that is usually from trying to give right answer, not what they think is right
38
preoperational language development
huge increase in vocab
| -from ~200 to 10000 words; because of fast mapping
39
fast mapping
once you already know some words, learning new words becomes faster bc you are just mapping those new words onto words you already know and looking at the relationship between what you know and what is new
40
overregulation
generalizing a linguistic rule
-eg, they pick up on/taught adding -ed to make past tense; they might say I 'eated' all my crackers
-Generating new words from their understanding of words and language; instead of just absorbing what they learn and are taught
41
concrete operational stage
(7-11 years)
- errors of preoperational stage go away (develop theory of mind, no more conservational errors, precauseal thinking, cause and effect)
- characterized by appropriate use of logic
- still egocentric
- imaginary audience
- personal fable
42
concrete operational: how is concrete operational stage characterized
by appropriate use of logic
- trouble solving more abstract or hypothetical problems
- --eg, what would happen if water became heavier
- deficit in application of counterfactual knowledge
- -ie, child can't imagine a situation which goes against the way of reality
- -eg, rule is if you hit hammer with a glass it will break; billy hits a glass with a hammer, what does child think will happen? It will break; counterfactual question: Counterfactual question: tell them if you hit a glass with a feather it will break, they will say no, but you say just imagine that it does; if you ask what will happen with the feather and glass, they will say nothing will happen
-children use trial and error to discover more about world
43
imaginary audience
-feeling as though ones behaviours are the main focus of other people attention
- can be negative where they feel like being watched in a negative way
- -eg,13 year old doesn't want to leave house because they have a pimple and everybody is watching them
44
personal fable
feeling as though one is special and their thoughts are novel and unique
-also associated with feeling of invulnerability (ie, bad things can't happen to me)
45
formal operational stage
(12+ years)
- logical thinking and use of abstract ideas and symbold
- capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning, counterfactual thinking
- development of metacognition
46
metacognition
thinking about thinking
- ie, acknowledging your thoughts
- eg, I am being very negative today
47
challenges to Piaget's theory
- development is continuous
- -demonstrated by A not B experiment
- sometimes children show skills from later stages before earlier stages
- development isn't always domain general
- -ie, child might show their linguistic understanding is of someone in formal operational stage, but math is in preoperational
48
A not B experiment
- Child around age with object permanence (7, or 8 months)
- Trial 1, hide car under orange cloth, child will see this and look under orange;
- trial 2, do this again under blue cloth, child will watch and choose the orange cloth again
- Part of infants mind keeps them stuck on the successful experiment
- shows there isn't clear leap into stages; in this experiment, child somewhat understand object permanence
- therefore, probably intermediate stages
49
early childhood
| emotional and social development
- start to develop self concept, -develop concept of gender and apply to themselves
- cross cultural children start to learn about gender based expectations and stereotypes around age 2-3
- start to develop self control: marshmallow test
50
self concept
an idea of who we are and what we are capable of
comes from
- theory of looking glass self
- theory of I and me
51
theory of looking glass self
- our own self concept comes from looking at how other people respond to use
- if you are told you are fast and good at sports, you create a self concept around this
- -If someone says you are slow and bad; if a self concept has already been developed then this will be filtered out and wont influence self concept
- -Flipside, if you get negative responses, like abusive parents, could build self concept around these things and filter out positive things because it doesn’t match their self concept / identity
52
theory of I and Me
-relates to liking glass self
-makes distinction between why we are and see ourself (not through others) and our view with social lens
the "I" is how you view yourself regardless of how anybody view you
-the "me" is affected by social lens
53
self control: marshmallow test
-you can have one now, or two when I get back
- kids who held out longer show better outcomes in life, school jobs
- testing delayed gratification but also other things; if they are used to not trusting a parent, they might think they aren't going to get a second one even if they come back
54
4 parenting styles
authoritarian
permissive
authoritative
negligence/uninvolved
55
authoritarian
- High expectation/control, low warmth/responsiveness
- More typical parenting
- Demands on children are higher; more adultlike
- Tend to show more fear of parents, may have worse connection with parents, may take frustrations out on other people
56
permissive
High warmth, low expectations
Parents more like friend than authority
Children tend to make own rules and activities, parents are communicative but don't have lots of structure
Might fail to learn self discipline, feel insecure and not know boundaries in life
57
authoritative
High expectations, high warmth
| Strict but allow communication and negotiation, some discipline
58
uninvolved/negligent
Not lots of rules, consequences, don't engage with them often
Low warmth responsiveness, low control/expectations
Children tend to have difficulty forming strong peer relationships in life, and poor performance in school
59
influences of class and culture on parenting style
- Authoritarian parenting typically favoured in collectivist cultures and in working class families
- Emphasize qualities needed for survival and success
- Working class parents more likely to use obedient style parenting than middle class; they are rewarded at work for being obedient, reliable, honest
60
development through play; the types of play
- unoccupied
- solitary
- onlooker
- parallel
- associative
- cooperative
61
unoccupied
more like observing
62
solitary play
playing alone
63
onlooker play
watching others play but not engaging
64
parallel play
playing separate for others but close
65
associative play
interested in others playing but not coordinating their activities
66
cooperative play
okaying together, making rules, rules; may form bonds with each other
67
middle childhood
(later elementary, close to adolescence, but not including life after puberty)
- start to develop more realistic sense of self
- start to make friendship based on characteristics
- peer acceptance important for self esteem
- peer rejection associated w behavioural problems (cause and effect in notes); also social comparison
- peer relationships become focused on psychological intimacy (personal disclosure, vulnerability, loyalty
68
what influences a more realistic sense of self
(greater experience in comparing oneself to others; self concept influences by parents, peers, teachers, media)
69
social comparison/rejection
one might reject themselves from a group because they feel they don't meet the standard
70
moral development
Kohlberg study of dilemma
3 types
- preconventional
- conventional
- postconventional
71
preconventional moral development
Kohlberg study of dilemma
-Children's response to pharmacy break in is dependant on what they think the consequence/response is; they may say its bad because they will get in trouble, or it's good because the wife will be happy
72
conventional moral development
Kohlberg study of dilemma
| -Children may answer based on what other people would think of the man based on his actions
73
post conventional moral development
Kohlberg study of dilemma
- More abstract and in more formal and complicated ways; so usually not seen until after puberty
- They are able to understand there are different levels of right and wrong and their answer is based on balancing different factors; good to get meditation, but bad to break law and who will lose money as a result
74
adolescent cognitive development
new experiences and knowledge interact with changes in the brain
- significant development of frontal cortex
- high degree of synaptic pruning
- hormone changes
general improvement in
- attention
- memory
- processing speed
- cognitive organization
- metacognition
75
adolescent social/emotional development
- formation of personal and social identity
- adolescents push multiple boundaries and explore their identity
- can develop multiple "possible selves" and recognize contextual influences on behaviours
- less time w parents
- more time w peers; show homophily
- romantic relationships emerge; peer groups become more mixed
- common time to come out as gay
76
early adulthood: post formal operational thought
-practical, realistic, involves complexities of various perspectives, less concerned about what others think
77
Perry's scheme of cognition
- Studying undergrad students over their years of study at harvard
- A shift in dualism (absolute thinking; yes or no, right or wrong) to multiplicity (recognizing that some answers are solvable and some are not yet known) to relativism (understanding the importance of context)
- Impacted by age and educational experience
78
dialectical though
emerges in early adulthood
- ability to bring together opposing viewpoints or information, synthesize them and come up with new ideas
- often lacking in new comment section
- one of most advanced aspect of post formal thinking
- focus of university
79
cognitive decline
- no reliable decline before 60
| - reliably decrease in all measured psychometric abilities by age 74
80
social psychology
the study fo social interactions
how our thoughts feeling and actions influenced by others; even when they are not directly present
81
humans have large neocortex
this is part that encourages social interaction
part of evolution beach humans need social interactions
82
why does a person act the way they do
character
| situation
83
attribution theory
situational attribution
-focus on role of situation (external factors)
dispositional attribution
-focus on the role of the actors characteristics (internal factors)
-it is easier to make dispositional attributions when a behaviour is unexpected or out of the norm
84
fundamental attribution error
we tend to overemphasize the influence of personality and internal factors on the behaviour of others
-can lead to prejudice and stereotyping
eg, Castro experiment
85
Castro experiment
- Students read pro or anti castro essays
- Half were told the position was assigned; half wer told the position was self selected
- The students had to rank how pro castro the essay writer personally was
- No difference between assigned and self selected conditions
- Ie, those that thought the topic was assigned, were just as likely to rank those people as being pro castro as those who were told that they chose it
86
just work hypothesis bias
the belief that people get the outcome they deserve
- tied to fundamental attribution error
- leads to victim blaming
87
actor observer bias
Attribution of other people behavior to internal factors (fundamental attribution error) but our own behaviour to external factors
eg, I like my gf because (external traits); my friends like their girlfriend because (internal traits)
88
self serving bias
we tend to make internal attributions for our own actions when they have positive outcomes, but external if negative outcomes
89
group serving bias
extension she serving bias to loved ones, social groups, political groups etc
90
attitudes
relatively enduring feelings towards things that predispose our relations towards them
- more stable and longer than feelings
- frequently predict behaviour
- -eg, Someone who has a negative attitude towards math is unlikely to enroll in an optional high level math course
91
explicit attitude
involving affect (feels good to bike), behaviours (more likely to bike than drive), and cognitive components (I like to cycle, city should build more bike lanes)
92
implicit attitude
- involving affective, behaviours, but not cognitive
| - the halo effect
93
the halo effect
judgement of an attribute is influenced by our judgement of an unrelated attribute
-Eg, might say someone you like will be a better leader than someone you don't like even if they are better
94
what is beautiful is good effect
Belief that good looking people possess other desirable traits at a higher rate than less attractive people
Male judges rank essays as being of higher quality when the “author” photo is of a more attractive women
95
how to bright teeth affect ratings
mostly popularity, happiness, and academic success
96
mere exposure effect
repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases our liking for them
- advertisers rely not his
- also has generalized effect
- zebrowitz et al; asian exposure
- exposure can also have opposite effect if we have initial dislike
97
cognitive dissonance
psychological discomfort that arises as a consequence of holding two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time - or when one acts in a way inconsistent with their beliefs
maintaining cognitive consistency is a very strong motivator
98
Cognitive Dissonance
| example
fast food is bad for health; I care about my health
- conflict between belief and actions
- leads to uncomfortable cognitive dissonance
99
reducing cognitive dissonance
change attitude
-fast food isn't that bad
change behaviours
-stop eating fast food
add new cognitions
-eating fast food gives me motivation to work out; mental gymnastics
ignore/deny
100
cognitive dissonance; Festinger and Carlsmith 1959
Subjects performed dull tasks for an hour
Negative attitude towards task
Asked to tell the next subject the task was fun; either paid $1 or $20
The asked to evaluate the experiment
Subjects paid $1 rated the task as more enjoyable and fun as those paid $20
Because if paid $1 it's not enough incentive to lie so they “think why did i lie and say it was fun” so they overcome the dissonance by changing their attitude
101
post decisional dissonance
changing our attitudes to remove the dissonance generated by the fear we have made an incorrect choice
eg, Brehm 1956 appliance study
102
persuasion: foot in the door phenomenon
type of reciprocity; the tendency for ppl who agreed to a small favour to comply with a larger one
-By agreeing to initial request we feel like we have done them a favor and have an attitude for them and yourself; then when you get larger request you want to act consistent with your self perception in the moment
103
written question
Cognitive dissonance may arise when eating meat. Most people do not want animals to be harmed or killed, but most of us also enjoy burgers or chicken nuggets etc. This causes a conflict between thoughts (I don't want animals to be killed) and actions (I eat a beef burger). People reduce this dissonance in several ways. For example:
changing attitude: Its okay for animals to be killed for food
sometimes people will eliminate this dissonance by changing their behaviours and becoming vegetarian/vegan and stopping eating meat.
add new cognitions:
- animals die all the time in nature
- I'm not the one harming/killing it
- I chose the place that treats them humanely
- its only one burger
Ignore/deny: many people will eat meat and choose to completely ignore that it is meat, essentially just viewing something like beef as its own food.
104
the false consensus effect
people tend to assume that other will agree with them or act the same as them
eg, Ross et al 1977 "eat at joes" sign
105
prejudice
usually a negative evaluation of a group or its members
106
common features of prejudice
- negative emotions
- stereotypes
- predisposition to discriminate
negative prejudice not often seen in ones own group
- more knowledge of individuals, less need for stereotypes to judge
- outgroup homonegativity
107
stereotypes
generalized beliefs
- can be important to make fast decisions
- can leas to faulty assumptions
- when paired w negative emotions of prejudice can become exaggerated and strong
- can lead to predisposition to discriminate
108
outgrip homonegativity effect
perception that members of an outgroup are more similar to each other than their own group are to each other
eg, our team has lots of variety, they are all the same
109
justification suppression model
conflict between desire to express prejudice and desire to maintain a positive self concept
- causes ppl to search for justification for dislike
- creates cognitive dissonance
- eg, I am good person, I don't like gays, but that's bc its offensive to me and my values
110
self fulfilling prophecy
When an expectation held by a person alters their behaviour in a way that tends to make it true
Pygmalion effect; people live up to their expectations
111
confirmation bias
We tend to pay more attention to information consistent with our stereotypic expectations and ignore information that is inconsistent
112
how can prejudice be reduced
- Increase knowledge about the outgroup
- Reducing anxiety about the outgroup
- Increasing empathy towards the outgroup
113
groupthink
desire for harmony or conformity in the group result in a suboptimal decision making outcome
- groupmembers might be overconfident in the group
- dissent (disagreement) might be discourages - creating illusion of unanimity
114
groupshift
initial positions of members of a group become more extreme due to group influence
-If individuals feel their position is correct and supported, they may feel more comfortable taking on more extreme views
115
deindividuation
loss of ones individual identity; more common in larger groups
Diener et al 1976 extra candy
116
obedience
form of social influence in which a person yield to instructions from an authority figure
eg, milligram experiment
117
milgram experiment
testing obedience by making people shock someone with electricity
(start of social psych part 3)
118
compliance
complying with request from peers
Definition: an individual’s acquiescence in response to a request from peer(s)
-request may be implicit or explicit
119
influences in compliance
relationship strength
proximity
similarity
number of people asking
120
door in the face
increases compliance
| -making an initial unreasonable request, followed by a smaller request
121
ingratiation
increases compliance
| gaining someones approval so they will be more likely to comply with a request
122
norm of reciprocity
increases compliance
| compliance more likely when requester have previously complied with a request
123
conformity
matching attitudes, beliefs, and fbehcaiours to group norms; fitting in with what everybody is doing
- eg, if everybody stands up at a beep, then you might too
- most common and pervasive form of social influence
124
motivation to conform:
| normative influence
-conforming to gain social acceptance
| eg, all your friends are doing something so you do it too
125
motivation to conform:
| informational influence
conforming to other bc we think they have accurate information
-eg, locals leave beach when tide recedes quickly
126
factors of conformity
- large group size
- unanimity
- high group cohesion (team building etc)
- high status (group you want in or look up to)
- younger age (maybe cause of lack of experience or lack of status
- lower self esteem
- low importance of outcome
127
minority conformity
when a smaller number of individuals are able to influence a larger groups
typically when the minority is
- consistent
- confident
128
social facilitation
tendency to perform better or faster in the presence of others
- usually tasks we are already skilled at
- less influential for tasks we are not skilled at
129
audience effect
- social facilitation with spectator audience
- can increase arousal and performance; but can also increase past peak arousal and cause negative performance (eg, stage fright)
130
social loafing
ppl are prone to exert less effort when working as a group
- diffusion of responsibility
- most common when difficult to identify the contributions of a person (ringlemann 1913)
131
bystander effect
individuals are more likely help when alone than when in company of others
132
personality
- Ones characteristic pattern of thinking feeling and acting
| - Tendencies that ppl display over time and across situations that distinguish people from one another
133
phrenology
shape of head and facial features determines personality
134
somatology
body type determines personality
135
freudian perspective
- personality primarily influenced by unconscious drives and childhood sexual dynamics
- Personality is a combination of pleasure seeking impulses (id), reality oriented functions (the ego) and an internalized set of ideals (superego)
136
ego defences: denial
blocking events from thoughts so you don't have to deal with the emotional consequences (similar to cognitive dissonance?)
137
behavioural perspective
personality results from the interaction between an individual and their enviro
strongest opposition to psychoanalytic/freudian theory of personality
personality is shaped by reinforcements and consequences
- develops over life
- passively acquired
138
humanistic perspective
- rejects earlier theories
- looks at person as a whole
- healthy people
- maslaw's hierarchy
139
carl rogers - person entered perspective
how would you respond to "who am I"
- real self; who you really are
- ideal self; who you want to be
140
congruence
when real and ideal selves are similar
141
trait theory
personality can be understood as a collection of traits
142
Raymond settle - 171 traits
- used factor analysis to cluster
- 16 dimensions (16PF)
- its a continuum / spectrum / dimension
143
Sybil and Hans eysenck
2 dimension theory; 2 factor
- introversion/extroversion
- neuroticism/stability
144
the five factor model (the big five / big 5)
- most popular modern and empirically supported theory
- CANOE
- relatively stable traits
- factor analysis
- reliable
- its a score on a spectrum / continuum / dimension
145
HEXACO
based on lexical hypothesis
-The suggestion that traits important to a society will lead to the development of words to describe high and low trait levels
-6 traits
-new trait on top of big five is Honesty/Humility
-Sincerity, fairness, modesty, avoidance of greed
Low levels associated with; increased materialism, support for unethical business practices,higher willingness to take risks to one's personal health and safety
146
MBTI
most popular personality assessment outside of psychology
| -not accurate
147
Barnum effect / former effect
people tend to believe in descriptions of their personality that are supposedly descriptive of them - but could in fact describe almost everyone
148
how stable is personality
-relatively stable over time but gradual changes occur across life and with important events and deliberate action
149
general patterns of trait change
increase in extroversion, agreeableness, and openness in early life; peaks around mid life - the maturity principle
-ie, stuff you need for life/jobs
later life, decreased neuroticism, except for increase at end, decreased extra, open, conscientiousness
