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Developing Professional Capability Flashcards

1
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is pedagogy?

A

Based on the idea of teaching specific tasks to help children prepare to learn additional, more complicated tasks.
Traditional classroom approach.

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2
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What are the key assumptions of pedagogy?

A

The instructor is the expert.
The instructor is responsible for all aspects of the learning process.
Instruction is content-centered.
Motivation is external.

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3
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES
These are the key assumptions of what teaching technique?
The instructor is the expert.
The instructor is responsible for all aspects of the learning process.
Instruction is content-centered.
Motivation is external.

A

Pedagogy

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4
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES
What learning technique focuses on the traditional classroom that is based on the idea of teaching specific tasks to children to help prepare them to learn additional, more complicated tasks?

A

Pedagogy

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5
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is andragogy?

A

Knowles’s theory suggests that adult learning is characterized by classes where the teacher and student are seen as equal.
Learners have more control over how and when they learn.

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6
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES
What learning theory suggests that adult learning is characterized by classes where the teacher and student are seen as equal and learners have more control over how and when they learn?

A

Andragogy

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7
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What are the six key assumptions of Knowles’s andragogy theory?

A 
The Need to Know
The Learner’s Self-Concept
The Role of the Learner’s Experience
Readiness to Learn
Orientation to Learning
Motivation
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8
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the “need to know” assumption in andragogy theory?

A

Adults need to know why something is important and why they should invest time in a learning event. Therefore, it’s important that learners know the purpose for training and how it will affect them as early as possible.

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9
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the “learner’s self-concept” in the andragogy theory?

A

Learners enter learning situations with a self-concept of who they are. They see themselves as self-directing, responsible grown-ups, and don’t like taking directions from others. Therefore, it is critical to help learners identify their needs and direct their own learning experience.

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10
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the “role of the learner’s experience” in the andragogy theory?

A

Adults can draw on their own life experiences to make sense of new learning. They have a great deal to contribute. Thus, adult educators must look for ways to build on and make use of participants’ hard-earned experience and knowledge while promoting group learning.

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11
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the “readiness to learn” assumption in the andragogy theory?

A

Adults need to see how a learning experience is relevant to their needs. Showing learners how learning will help them to cope with their work or personal life will increase their readiness to learn.

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12
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the assumption “orientation to learning” in the andragogy theory?

A

Adults are practical and willing to devote energy to learning things they believe will help them to perform better or solve problems. Adult educators should invest time in learning the needs and interests of the learners so that they can develop and adapt the content in response to their needs.

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13
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the “motivation” assumption for the andragogy theory?

A

Adults respond best to internal motivators such as job satisfaction, self-esteem, and quality of life. When a specific need arises that has intrinsic value or personal payoff, adults are more motivated to learn. Andragogy practitioners should link learning with internal motivations.

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14
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

Who developed the andragogy and pedagogy techniques/theories for learning?

A

Malcolm Knowles

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15
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

Who developed the “learner centered approach” to teaching?

A

Carl Rogers

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16
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the learner centered approach?

A

Learners are involved from start to finish and can choose what to study.
TD pros must include active-learning techniques and keep learners engaged

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17
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What are the key assumptions of the learner-centered approach?

A

learners want to control what and how they learn
learners can be trusted to develop their own potential
learners should be encouraged to choose both the type and direction of their learning.

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18
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the facilitator’s role in the learner-centered approach?

A

Establish the initial climate by clarifying the purpose of the session.
Plan the widest possible range of resources to address needs as they arise.
Limit lectures and incorporate activities that involve learners.
Be prepared to show learners what’s in it for them.
Build-in time for open discussion.
Create a welcoming and friendly environment.
Prepare discussion questions that help the facilitator to be a guide, not an expert.

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19
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Model?

A

Contends that people have complex needs that they strive to fulfill, and those needs change and evolve. Individuals achieve the next level of the hierarchy only after lower-level needs have been satisfied.

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20
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What are the levels of needs in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

A

Top: Self-actualization – the need to excel
Esteem – the need to be recognized by others
Belonging – the need for friends and family
Safety – the need to be safe and stable
Bottom: Physiological needs – the need for food, drink, sex, and sleep

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21
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

Needs related to which level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs relates to the opportunities for growth and achievement?

A

Self-actualization

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22
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What area of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs model should TD pros focus?

A

Self-Actualization

establishing an appropriate climate to help satisfy the need to excel

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23
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is Patricia Cross’s “Chain of Response”?

A

Motivation to participate is the result of a person’s perception of both positive and negative forces.
Participation in learning events affects how individuals feel about learning and their outcomes.
Higher-order needs for achievement and self-actualization can’t be fulfilled until lower-order needs for security and safety are met.
Expectations of reward are important to motivation.

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24
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

How does Patricia Cross define the “Characteristics of Adult Learners (CAL)”?

A

Talent development professionals should capitalize on participant’s experience.
Adults should have maximum choice in what to learn.

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25
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What role does neuroscience play in adult learning?

A

− Neuroscience has a significant impact on psychology and learning.
− It looks at thought, emotion, and behavior using technology and then uses biology to describe what happens in the brain.
− Using a scientific method approach can help talent development professionals determine whether something attributed to neuroscience is actually cognitive science.

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26
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What are the three domains of learning in Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy?

A

o Cognitive domain (knowledge)
o Psychomotor domain (skills)
o Affective domain (attitude)

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27
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What are the six levels of behavior in Bloom’s Taxonomy?

A 
o remembering
o understanding
o applying
o analyzing
o evaluating
o creating.
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28
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the Cognitive Domain (Blooms)?

A

Also known as knowledge

involves the development of intellectual skills

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29
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the psychomotor domain in Blooms?

A

Also known as skills

Refers to the use of motor skills to accomplish a task

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30
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is the Affective Domain (Bloom’s)?

A

Also known as attitude

Refers to how people react to things emotionally

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31
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What are Robert Gagne’s five types of learning?

A 
o Intellectual skills
o Cognitive strategy
o Verbal information
o Motor skills
o Attitude
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32
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What are Robert Gagne’s nine events of instruction?

A 
o Gain attention of the learners.
o Inform learners of the objectives.
o Stimulate recall of prior learning.
o Present the content.
o Provide learning guidance.
o Elicit performance.
o Provide feedback.
o Assess performance.
o Enhance retention and transfer to the job.
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33
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is “Intellectual Skills” in Gagne’s theory?

A

The concepts, rules and procedures to perform a task

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34
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is “cognitive strategy” (Gagne)?

A

Strategies employed by learners to take in, retain, and apply their knowledge

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35
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is “verbal information” (Gagne)?

A

The information the learner can declare that they will use to make sense of new information

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36
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is “Motor skills” (Gagne)?

A

Carrying out practical tasks or following a procedure

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37
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is “attitude” (Gagne)?

A

Bias or values that influence a learner’s action toward something

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38
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What are the 3 events that are in the “Preparation” phase of Gagne’s 9 events of instruction?

A

Gain attention
Inform the learners of the objectives
stimulate recall of prior knowledge

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39
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What are the 4 events in the “instruction and practice” phase of Gagne’s 9 events of instruction model?

A

Present the stimulus
Provide learning guidance
Elicit performance
provide feedback

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40
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What are the last two events in the “Assessment and Transfer” phase of Gagne’s 9 events of instruction model?

A

Assess performance

Enhance retention and transfer

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41
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is Robert Mager known for?

A

the use of specific, measurable objectives that guide designers during course development, trainers during facilitation, and participants during the learning process

behavioral or performance objectives

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42
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what are criteria-referenced objectives?

A

measuring the ability of the learner to meet specific criteria upon completion of the learning

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43
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what are the components of a behavioral objective?

A

performance: the behavior written as a specific, observable action, described using a verb
condition: describes the setting under which the behavior is performed and should include the tools or assistance required
criteria: describes the level of performance and should be stated by including an acceptable range of allowable answers

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44
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

define the performance component of a behavioral objective.

A

behavior written as a specific, observable action, described using a verb.

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45
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

define the condition component of a behavioral objective

A

describes the setting under which the behavior is performed and should include the tools or assistance required.

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46
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

define the criteria component of behavioral objectives

A

describes the level of performance and should be stated by including an acceptable range of allowable answers

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47
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what is the Hermann Ebbinghaus forgetting curve?

A

the process of forgetting or “memory decay” happens naturally and in a uniform way.
The forgetting curve shows that more than half of memory is forgotten within an hour.

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48
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

how can you arrest or reduce memory decay?

A

techniques like mnemonics and repetition

designing recall opportunities for learners over intervals of time

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49
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

What is Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory based on?

A

the influence of media in modeling behavior

incorporating modeling into teaching helps learners learn new patters or reduce existing ones

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50
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

how can TD pros use Bandura’s social cognitive theory

A

by designing experiences that enable a facilitator to model ideal behavior
to create experiences where participants model behaviors

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51
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what are the three most influential learning theories?

A

behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism

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52
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what is behaviorism?

A

it’s about predicting and controlling behavior
focuses on observable behaviors and suggests that learning happens when associations between stimuli and responses are strengthened or weakened

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53
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what is the objective of behaviorism?

A

to shape behavior through reinforcement until the learner internalizes the reinforcement so that new behavior is rewarding by itself

such as training a dog

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54
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what does B.F. Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning suggest?

A

that behavior is shaped by the consequences of reinforcement or punishment
information to be learned is divided into small steps; as learners respond at each step, they are immediately told if the answer is right or wrong. learners progress through the materials and their behavior is gradually shaped until the objective is achieved

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55
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what are the advantages of behaviorism?

A

The results of applying behaviorist methods are observable.
It works best for helping learners to acquire behavioral skills.
Behaviorism ensures behavioral practice, not just theory.
Behaviorist learning methods establish objectives that are clear and unmistakable.

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56
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what is cognitivism?

A

about how people think and remember
focuses on mental processes that involve how people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve problems, and react to one stimulus rather than another.

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57
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what is the cognitive approach based on?

A

the principle that learning occurs primarily through exposure to logically presented information and retrieval or rehearsal leads to retention
Cognitivism represents a shift from a focus on behavior to the organization of memory and thinking. For cognitive scientists, the basic model of the mind is an information-processing system.

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58
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what is the difference in behaviorism and cognitivism?

A

While behaviorists identify “thinking” as a behavior, cognitivists argue that how people think has an impact on their behavior and, therefore, cannot be a behavior itself.

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59
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

how can TD pros use cognitivism?

A

to build on the behavioral approach. This will help them expand their range of strategies and tactics for creating development options for learners.

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60
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what are the advantages of cognitivism?

A

Cognitivism focuses on thinking skills.
It emphasizes foundational knowledge.
It believes in building a base of information, concepts, and rules.
It provides the rationale upon which action is based.

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61
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what is constructivism?

A

Constructivism focuses on knowledge acquisition through experiences and interactions with the environment.

Learners construct knowledge from assimilation and accommodation

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62
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what is assimilation?

A

incorporating a new experience into an already-existing framework without changing that framework

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63
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what is accommodation?

A

the process of reframing one’s mental beliefs of the external world to fit new experiences.

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64
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

when might a learner change their perceptions of the experiences to fit their internal beliefs (or accommodate)?

A

when the individual experiences a contradiction to their internal beliefs

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65
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what should TD pros know when using the constructivism?

A

Constructivists also believe that learners are motivated to learn only when they believe they can be successful. And yet constructivism also describes a process by which failure leads to learning.

Training then involves carefully designed experiential opportunities similar to what learners encounter in the real world.

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66
Q

LEARNING SCIENCES

what are the advantages of constructivism?

A

Constructivism is discovery oriented.
It builds learner understanding with real-world relevance.
It allows for differences in learner backgrounds and experiences.
Constructivist learning methods have facilitators guide learners through the learning process.

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67
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

how should TD pros choose activities or methods?

A

depending on the learning objective (Bloom’s taxonomy)

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68
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are course objectives based on?

A

Bloom’s taxonomy

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69
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what phase are the course objectives determined?

A

analysis and design

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70
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are the technology options for learning?

A 
- Presentation software
− Interactive presentation software
− Collaboration tools
− Simulation tools
− Immersive technologies
− Artificial Intelligence (AI)
− Course management tools
− Video-producing software
− Content-capture tools
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71
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

when choosing a technology for the learner, what should it be aligned to?

A

the learning objectives

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72
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is classroom training?

A

when all participants are in the same room or virtually for students in different locations

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73
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is presentation software?

A

can help embed videos, verbal files, customized animation, or high-rez pictures to enhance a presentation beyond PowerPoint and Prezi

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74
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is interactive presentation software?

A

provides an opportunity to gain more audience participation online or with live audiences through voting, quizzes, trivia, games, and creating word clouds

Menti and mural

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75
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are collaboration tools?

A

allow the participants to exchange documents online, provide feedback, and even project them on more than one screen.

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76
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are simulation tools?

A

allow the presentation of experiential learning scenarios, and learners can practice in a computer-generated setting.

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77
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are immersive technologies?

A

allow learners to be immersed so that they feel as if they are experiencing the actual learning environment.

such as augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) or a combination of both

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78
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is artificial intelligence?

A

accommodates remote and on-the-go employees with a wide range of applications, including personalized and adaptive learning.

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79
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are course management tools?

A

allow supporting online components for prework, downloadable tools, assignments, or a discussion board.

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80
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is video producing software?

A

adds additional audio, stylish fonts, highlighted graphics, and other eye-catching tricks to customize any story.

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81
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are content-capture tools?

A

allow recording of delivery and development discussions from computers to be uploaded for participants’ future use.

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82
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is a course objective?

A

state what participants will be able to do differently as a result of the training or other development. Every concept, skill, or behavior should be identified with an objective.

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83
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is a terminal objective?

A

represent what learners must master before completing the course.
Terminal objectives are the final behavioral outcomes of a specific learning event.
They describe the intended competencies for the unit, lesson, course, or program for which they were written.

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84
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is another name for a terminal objective?

A

performance objective

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85
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is an enabling objective?

A

support the terminal objectives by breaking them down into more manageable chunks.
They are building blocks, providing the additional concepts or skills needed to meet the terminal objective.

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86
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

to master one terminal objective, learners must master _________.

A

several subordinate objectives called enabling objectives

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87
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are the three domains in writing learning objectives?

A

o knowledge or cognitive learning
o skills or psychomotor
o attitude or affect.

often shortened to KSAs

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88
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is the “knowledge or cognitive learning” domain for writing objectives?

A

involves mental processes and the acquisition of information

89
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is the “skills or psychomotor” domain of writing objectives?

A

involves manipulation of objects or machinery based on mental decisions

90
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is the “attitude” domain of writing objectives?

A

involves motivation and perceptions

also known as “affect”

91
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

how does Bloom’s taxonomy organize the three domains of writing objectives?

A

in a hierarchy from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation

92
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

according to Robert Mager, a learning objective should include ____ components

A

three

93
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are the three components Robert Mager says are in a learning objective?

A

behavior or performance by the learner
conditions under which the learner must perform the behavior
criteria that measures the acceptable range of performance

94
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Mager suggest that learning objectives should be ______ and ______.

A

specific

measurable

95
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is Mager’s A-B-C-D format for writing objectives?

A

Audience - Behavior - Condition - Degree

96
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

In Mager’s A-B-C-D format, what is the Audience?

A

the specific target audience by using the course title

for example, “Learners in ‘Leading Meetings’”

97
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

In Mager’s A-B-C-D format, what is the “behavior”?

A

provides an observable and measurable description about the anticipated performance

for example, “will be able to develop an agenda”

98
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

In Mager’s A-B-C-D format, what is the “condition”?

A

states the support available to learners to complete the objective

for example, “using an agenda template”

99
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

In Mager’s A-B-C-D format, what is the “degree”?

A

Indicates how close to perfection a learner must get to meet the objective

for example, “100 percent of the time” or “every time”

100
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what does SMART stand for?

A

Specific - clearly defined
Measurable - contain one or more defined standards (criteria) by which to gauge effective performance
Achievable - be difficult yet attainable by the learner
Relevant - be important to the organization and the purpose of the course
Time-Bound - include specific timeframes

101
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

What are the different visual representation options for course design?

A

Storyboards
Wireframes
Mock-ups and prototypes

102
Q

INSTRUCTION DESIGN

what is a storyboard?

A

o are a type of graphic organizer developed by Walt Disney Studio
o help in visualizing
o give talent development professionals an opportunity to experiment early in the
process.

103
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is a wireframe?

A

o are generally associated with the design of a website

o are simple black-and-white layouts that focus purely on the structure

104
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are mock-ups and prototypes?

A

o A mock-up looks like the final product without any interactivity
o A prototype provides partial functionality, which enables testing

105
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is included in course design activities?

A 
− a final list of objectives
− the recommended modality
− suggested module names
− the sequence of modules, topics, and activities (flow, transitions, links)
− practice opportunities
− details about each objective:
o special teaching points
o suggested instructional methods
o media requirements
o testing requirements.
106
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is the rationale for sequencing?

A

o will be easier for learners to follow
o ensures a logical flow from one point to the next
o allows for logical transitions from one chunk of information to the next.

107
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

What are the ways a TD pro can arrange learning objectives in logical sequence?

A 
o job performance order
o chronological order
o from simple content to complex
o problem and solution
o general to specific
o less risky to more risky
o known to unknown
o dependent relationship
o supportive relationship
o cause to effect.
108
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is the purpose of a course map?

A

lists the modules in sequence and is accompanied by media selections and support requirements

109
Q 
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
what does a module provide?
A

content and practice on the basis of the learning objectives

110
Q 
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
what should a module contain?
A

o objectives
o knowledge content to enable the learner to complete the task
o identification of trainer and learner activities that will result in mastery of the
objectives
o practice activities to help reach the objectives
o an assessment mechanism (such as test items) to determine whether the
objectives were achieved.

111
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are some other factors to consider when creating a module?

A

o timing and breaks
o the amount of material to include
o class or group size for activities
o simulation of job conditions.

112
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are design outputs in the design phase?

A

o a final recommendation about the modality that will be used to deliver the solution
o the required technology or special equipment.

113
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

when using formal learning, what are the design outputs?

A

o the sequenced design linked to the solution, outcomes, and objectives
o an evaluation plan
o recommended methods and media
o materials required with draft copies or mock-ups.

114
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

when using informal learning, what would the design outputs be?

A

o mock-ups of checklists or tip sheets for on-the-job learning
o a plan for how to tell employees about the resources
o optional guidance for anyone who will use the informal learning solutions

115
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what does a well-written facilitator guide do?

A

o makes preparation and delivery easier for instructor-led courses
o helps ensure program consistency if more than one facilitator is used

116
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is the format of a facilitator’s guide?

A

descriptive titles and visuals that support the facilitation
numbered pages to match the participants’ guides if possible
should indicate where visuals, slides, and other facilitator assets are used.

the appendices should include any necessary facilitation tools along with additional participant materials (such as job aides, role-play scripts, and case studies)

117
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

how can a TD pro support a facilitator?

A

o including a resource checklist and a background reading list
o preparing any required information or material, such as handouts, flipcharts, and
media
o Providing the facilitator with integrators that link content to the participants’ prior
learning
o Determining whether administrative aids, such as participant rosters, maps, or
name tags are required
o Including an equipment and supply list for things such as paper, media players,
projectors, computers, charts, pointers, flipcharts, and markers.

118
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what should participant guides include?

A

descriptive titles and visuals

119
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what should participant training materials include?

A

o downloadable or fillable worksheets
o instruction cards or handouts for activities, assessments, or case studies
o tangible items (a product for example) so that participants can judge quality or a
physical tool they can use for practice.

120
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what do participant supporting materials include?

A

things such as job aids, infographics,

checklists, and templates they use during the course as well as on the job.

121
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are the guidelines for slide development?

A

− Use descriptive headings.
− Present one idea at a time.
− Use no more than two fonts and ensure they are both sized to read easily.
− Aim for more white space than content.
− Add graphics, pictures, charts, or other visuals that clarify the message.
− Use special effects only if they clarify and support the objective

122
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are the guidelines for designing assessments to test learning?

A

− Provide clear instructions and resources
− Only test what is required on the job
− Keep information in questions brief and essential
− Use key words, such as who, what, when, and where
− Group questions by topic areas (Miner 2007)
− Check with HR or legal staff regarding test validation procedures in the organizations.

123
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

evaluation materials can be either _____ or _____.

A

formative

summative

124
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is a formative evaluation?

A

occurs continually throughout the analysis, design, development, and implementation phases

125
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is a summative evaluation?

A

occurs only after course completion

126
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what is adaptive learning?

A

defined as an approach that works to tailor the learning experience
to the specific needs of the individual
o ensures the right content is presented at the right time for each individual
o help talent development professionals respond to the fast-paced and disruptive
work environment
o helps talent development profession

127
Q

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

what are adaptive learning technologies?

A

o Artificial intelligence
o Predictive analytics
o Machine learning

128
Q

TRAINING DELIVERY & FACILITATION

what are the reasons for modification of assets?

A

− Timing
− Relevance
− Learning requirements

129
Q

TRAINING DELIVERY & FACILITATION

what is facilitating?

A

Facilitating usually refers to taking less of a delivery role and acting as a catalyst for learning. When a trainer uses facilitative methods, learners assume responsibility for their own learning.

130
Q

TRAINING DELIVERY & FACILITATION

what is teaching?

A

Teaching relates more to a teller or instructor who is distributing knowledge with limited learner involvement. It is generally associated with a pedagogical process.

131
Q

TRAINING DELIVERY & FACILITATION

what is presenting?

A

Presenting typically denotes delivering a speech to a group of people with little two-way communication.

132
Q

TRAINING DELIVERY & FACILITATION

when communicating as a facilitator, you should focus on ___?

A

how you use your voice
how you open a session
what opportunities you have to personalize the messaging

133
Q

TRAINING DELIVERY & FACILITATION

what are some ways you can scan for learners’ reactions?

A

use eye contact to read participants’ faces to detect comprehension, boredom, or lack of understanding

when delivering live or online, facilitators may need to use other techniques to keep participants involved and engaged

134
Q

TRAINING DELIVERY & FACILITATION

how can you address disruptive learner behavior?

A

− Enable participants to self-manage behaviors by establishing their own ground rules.
− Create a climate in which participants feel free to give each other feedback.
− Build trust, reward appropriate behavior, and ignore inappropriate behavior.
− Model appropriate behavior.
− Be open to and invite individuals’ comments, ideas, and disagreements.
− When someone disagrees, be professional and respectful, acknowledging that there are different ways to think about a topic.

135
Q

TRAINING DELIVERY & FACILITATION

what are some facilitation techniques?

A 
− Practice active listening skills.
− Give clear directions.
− Balance participant involvement.
− Check for confirmation from the group.
− Avoid judgmental comments.
− Maintain focus on the process.
− Plan transitions.
− Summarize key concepts.
− Use silence to encourage participation.
− Encourage questions for clarity.
− Send welcoming nonverbal messages.
136
Q

TRAINING DELIVERY & FACILITATION

how can you facilitate discussion?

A

ask questions
generate ideas
enable decisions

137
Q

TRAINING DELIVERY & FACILITATION

how can you manage conflict when facilitating?

A

− Help participants differentiate the facts from assumptions.
− Remain unbiased.
− Stay calm and unemotional as the facilitator.
− Ask for clarification or summarize to confirm the real issue.
− Ask the tough questions that nobody else will.
− Create a safe environment for discussion.
− If needed, take a pause or flex the agenda to resolve unexpected conflicts.
− In extreme cases, call security if required.

138
Q

TRAINING DELIVERY & FACILITATION

what are ways to engage learners in an online environment?

A

− Gain participants’ attention from the beginning, using the time before the actual start time to begin the engagement. As an example, display a poll, post a rolling set of quotes, or begin a live chat with participants.
− Use a variety of techniques for involvement and for responding, for example, switch between the chat window, whiteboard, and the “raise hand” feature.
− Use the participants’ names when calling them or also include them when creating examples.
− Create social interactions by sharing the participant list and starting with brief introductions (verbally for a small group or in the chat window for a larger group).

139
Q

TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION

what is are some considerations when aligning learning technology to instructional content?

A

− Understand the full capabilities of the tools available to support learning activities.
− Consider a mix of modalities for a result-oriented experience.
− Use tools that complement one another.
− Consider legacy tools and content modalities when introducing new technology.

140
Q

TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION

what are some data standards that may be applied within a technology learning ecosystem?

A 
o SCORM (shareable content object reference model) 1.2 or 2004
o AICC (aviation industry computer-based training committee)
o xAPI (experience application programming interface)
o cmi5 (computer managed instruction, fifth attempt)
141
Q

TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION

what are some coding formats for video based content?

A

MP4, AVI, MOV

142
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what types of content can be curated for knowledge management?

A 
− Instructional content
− User-generated content
− Subject matter expert (SME) generated content
− Public domain content
− Third-party content
143
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what are the effects of knowledge management?

A 
− Introduction and implementation of metrics
− Improved quality of information
− Information updates
− Cost and productivity benefits
− Improved customer metrics
− Improved staff morale
144
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what are the methods used to curate content, tools, and resources for knowledge management?

A

− Evaluate the appropriate instructional and learning elements from various sources to support knowledge requirements in the broader knowledge system.
− Assess learning content, both internal and external to the organization, against the knowledge map to determine where there is appropriate application.

145
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

how does knowledge management help organization increase their strategic benefits?

A

o enhancing decision making
o improving innovation and collaboration
o reducing loss of expert knowledge
o exploiting market opportunities.

146
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

how does knowledge management help at the tactical level?

A

o enabling performers to safely share best practices
o capturing work process innovation
o increasing efficiency and productivity and reducing rework and reinvention
o reducing time to competence by creating targeted onboarding and providing access to knowledge

147
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what are factors that contribute to the success of a knowledge management strategy?

A

− Understanding business processes that support knowledge exchange
− Corporate culture and leadership
− Attitude of management
− Rewards and incentives
− Aligning knowledge management with talent development needs
− Identifying the efficient and effective application of knowledge

148
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what are strategies for successful implementation and application of knowledge?

A 
− Establish a knowledge management methodology.
− Designate a point person.
− Empower knowledge workers.
− Capture customer-centric knowledge.
− Manage core competencies.
− Foster collaboration and innovation.
− Learn from best practices.
− Extend knowledge sourcing.
− Interconnect communities of expertise.
− Report the measured value of knowledge assets. (Huang et al. (1999)
149
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

when implementing a KM strategy, what is done when you establish a KM methodology?

A

decide on policies, rules, techniques, and procedures to perform work and provide proven ways to do it successfully
understand the methodologies may be developed within the organization, may rely on established methods, or may be a combination of both

150
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what do you do in the “designate a point of contact” step of implementing a KM strategy?

A

appoint a chief knowledge officer to promote and manage the knowledge management activities in the company

151
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what do you do in the “empower knowledge workers” step of implementing a KM strategy?

A

empower and support knowledge workers by making them a key component of the KM system
give explicit permission to share and participate

152
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what do you do in the “capture customer-centric knowledge” step of implementing a KM strategy?

A

incorporate customer-centric knowledge in the KM approach to strengthen competitive position
emphasize customer satisfaction and focus on both learning about and learning from customers

153
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what do you do in the “manage core competencies” step of implementing a KM strategy?

A

identify and understand what the organization is good at
note that core competencies can vary based on unique benefits the organization offers its customers by combining human capital, intellectual and intangible assets, processes, and technologies

154
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what do you do in the “foster collaboration and innovation” step in implementing a KM strategy?

A

nurture collaboration by accentuating the importance of teamwork, learning, sharing, trust, and flexibility
develop an appropriate reward structure for innovation to foster high creative potential among individuals

155
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what do you do in the “extend knowledge sourcing” step of implementing a KM strategy?

A

knowledge sourcing is the successful retrieval of information and dissemination of knowledge
extend knowledge sourcing through different media such as the internet, intranet and extranet

156
Q

KNOWLEDGE

A
157
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what do you do in the “learn from best practices” step of implementing a KM strategy?

A

encourage reuse of the best ideas and methods by recording and sharing best practices
learn and share best practices through symposiums, conferences, seminars, and web-based approaches

158
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what do you do in the “interconnect communities of expertise” step of implementing a KM strategy?

A

connect internal and external communities using formal virtual communities and through electronic libraries such as whitepapers or knowledge banks
note that internal experts aid in problem solving, while external experts are generally connected with senior management for advice on specific areas

159
Q

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

what do you do in the “report the measured value of knowledge assets” step of implementing a KM strategy?

A

measure the contribution of knowledge management to the organization
validate the development and use of the knowledge management system

160
Q

CAREER AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what are the considerations for the foundation of a leadership development program?

A 
− Future focused
− Leadership responsibility
− Leadership quality
− Results oriented
− Value learning and development
− Long-term, aligned systemic approach
161
Q

CAREER AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what is the process of creating and evaluating a leadership development program?

A

− Analyzing development needs
− Clarifying the purpose and establish goals
o Categories of goals include operational or programmatic goals, interim goals, and outcome goals
− Determining design features:
o overall program design
o content
o delivery.
− Designing blended leadership development experiences
− Candidate eligibility, referral, and selection
− High potentials
− Sustaining and evaluating leadership development progress

162
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what are some recommended experiences to enhance formal learning curriculum for LD experiences?

A

o semi-structured leadership development
o structured leadership development
o highly structured leadership development

163
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

how should you select LD candidates?

A

− Candidate referral systems should have a clear nomination process.
− Referral systems provide an opportunity to expand diversity.
− The selection process must be fair and accurate.

164
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what are some methods candidates for the LD program be evaluated?

A

o nomination by a manager
o cumulative data from performance management systems or past talent review discussions
o individual assessments and custom developmental plans based on their outcomes
o participation in an assessment center exercise
o behavior or structured interviews.

165
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

how do you identify high potential employees for a LD program?

A

talent development professionals need to help their organizations establish promotion criteria defining high potential behaviors and achievements, based on transparent, objective performance assessments.

The process needs to focus on potential, not just past or current performance.

166
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what should a TD pro focus on when identifying high potentials?

A

o alignment with organizational values and culture
o their ability to build strategic partnerships and influence others
o their ability to build teams and lead them to success
o their capacity to deal with pressure, adversity, and setbacks with poise.

167
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what should companies address when reviewing their LD initiatives?

A 
o Leadership succession plans
o Leadership development requirements
o Future planning
o Review recommendations for new candidates
o Operational discussions
168
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what are strategies to evaluate leadership development initiatives?

A

Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Evaluation
Brinkerhoff’s Success Case Method
The Philips ROI Methodology

169
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what is Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation?

A

method for evaluating the results of training and learning programs
assesses both formal and informal training methods and rates them against four levels of criteria: reaction (level 1 - bottom), learning, behavior, and results (level 4 - top)

170
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what is Brinkerhoff’s success case method?

A

identifies the most and least successful cases within the learning program and studies them in detail

171
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what is Phillips ROI methodology?

A

helps to tie the costs of training programs with their actual results
builds on the kirkpatrick model

172
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what is the reason to have qualification programs?

A

to ensure the employees in the program have the appropriate skill sets

173
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what are the key reasons for implementing a qualification or certification program?

A

o build capacity for the organization’s talent needs
o attract qualified candidates to become employees
o provide training and development
o offer individuals recognition of achievement
o address a regulatory requirement
o meet the requirement to be legally defensible
o address the industry requirements for a license, certification, or other qualification program

174
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what are the essentials of a qualifications program?

A

o is based on narrowly defined content taught in a course and measured by an assessment
o tests specific knowledge or skills based on the learning objectives
o is awarded if the standards, such as a passing score, were met
o is a process that has limited rigor and discipline
o has trainers who are aware of the test scores and may conduct the assessment
o has credential holders retrain and retest at the end of a time period unless the qualification is valid for life.

175
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what are the essentials of a certification program?

A

o is based on a broad body of knowledge
o is independent of any education or training program
o bases assessment on a body of knowledge, not specific learning outcomes
o requires recertification to maintain the credential, such as continuing education opportunities
o prohibits those who train the content from conducting the assessment
o follows guidelines that prohibit the release of exam questions to anyone teaching or developing prep courses.

176
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what are the steps to designing, developing and implementing a qualification program?

A 
o Establish goals.
o Analyze the audience.
o Analyze the jobs or roles.
o Prepare a budget, finance model, and pricing structure.
o Determine a model.
o Assess training.
o Determine a timeline.
o Develop the training delivery and exam.
o Check all legal concerns.
177
Q

CAREER & LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

what are the responsibilities in designing, developing, and implementing and qualification program?

A

o Determine whether to run a test pilot.
o Plan a marketing campaign for the program.
o Determine a plan for the security of exam questions.
o Create a specific email address for the program.
o Develop an update plan to ensure the program keeps pace with the industry and other world changes.

178
Q

COACHING

what are the coaching competencies?

A
  1. setting the foundation
  2. co-creating the relationship
  3. communicating effectively
  4. facilitating learning and results
179
Q

COACHING

what do you do in the “setting the foundation” stage of coaching?

A
  • meeting ethical guidelines and professional standards

- establish the coaching agreement

180
Q

COACHING

what do you do in the “co-creating the relationship” stage of coaching?

A
  • establish trust and intimacy with the client (person receiving coaching)
  • coaching presence
181
Q

COACHING

what do you do in the “communicating effectively” stage of coaching?

A
  • active listening
  • powerful questioning
  • direct communication
182
Q

COACHING

what do you do in the “facilitating learning and results” stage of coaching?

A
  • creating awareness
  • designing actions
  • planning and goal setting
  • managing progress and accountability
183
Q

COACHING

what is the purpose of coaching?

A

− Coaching is usually part of a larger strategy for helping individuals, units, systems, and organizations to make major improvements in performance.
− Coaching is a tool for creating performance improvement and culture change.
− Unlike traditional classroom training, one-on-one coaching allows the coach and the client to focus on issues the client is facing.

184
Q

COACHING

what is the role of the coach in coaching?

A

o encouraging the client
o helping the client to define and clarify goals
o keeping discussions focused and moving
o asking stimulating questions
o summarizing and clarifying discussion topics
o helping the client to develop an action plan
o offering resources or tools to improve the client’s self-awareness or skills
o reviewing progress to goals
o facilitating the client’s ability to be coached
o vocalizing agreements about the next steps and follow-up
o demonstrating interest in helping the client to achieve goals.

185
Q

COACHING

what is the client’s (person receiving coaching) role in coaching?

A

o Demonstrate accountability.
o Seek development opportunities.
o Monitor their own progress.
o Complete tasks and assignments on time.
o Share goals, desired outcomes, and hopes.
o Openly discuss frustrations, problems, setbacks, questions, and successes.
o Discuss assumptions, opinions, and points of view relative to their goals.
o Participate in creating and implementing action plans.
o Take ownership of asking for coaching and follow up.
o Review progress to goals.
o Be open to exploring new ideas and approaches.
o Share setbacks and barriers.
o Be coachable, willing to change, and open to suggestions.

186
Q

COACHING

what are the steps in the ATD coaching model?

A 
− Clarify the agreement.
− Create a partnership.
− Collect and analyze the data.
− Construct a development plan.
− Collaborate and challenge.
− Complete and celebrate.
187
Q

COACHING

what must a manager do in coaching to ensure engagement?

A

o Establish expectations to ensure that employees know what is expected of them.
o Coach constantly and provide feedback.
o Create accountability by holding progress reviews.
o Connect an employee’s performance and accountability measures to their individual development plans.

188
Q

COACHING

what must managers have skills in for coaching?

A

o planning for coaching conversations
o discussing strengths and development
o delivering constructive feedback.

189
Q

COACHING

what are the 4 steps in the C-O-A-CH process?

A
  1. current situation
  2. objectives
  3. alternatives
  4. choices
190
Q

COACHING

when is coaching an appropriate solution?

A

when an employee does not understand expectations or priorities or needs help completing a task to performance standards

191
Q

COACHING

what is coaching not for?

A

solving performance problems due to obstacles such as lack of resources, unrealistic expectations, or too many responsibilities unless a manager adjusts these factors

192
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT
what do these do?
− Determine business impact, cost-benefit ratio, and the ROI for the solution.
− Determine whether the objectives of the solution were met and how well.
− Assess the effectiveness and appropriateness of the content and instructional strategies.
− Reinforce learning concepts by using a test or similar performance assessment.
− Provide feedback to the facilitator.
− Provide feedback to participants about what they learned.
− Assess the on-the-job environment to support learning retention.

A

evaluate impact

193
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are the benefits of evaluating TD solutions?

A

− Secures client support and confidence to build client relationships.
− Measures if program results are consistent with the organizational opportunity analysis and needs assessment.
− Validates performance gaps and learner needs.
− Determines whether training is the solution to a performance gap.
− Helps management to meet its organizational objectives.

194
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what is Ralph W Tyler’s goal attainment method?

A

evaluates based on objectives

195
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what questions does Ralph W Tyler’s goal attainment method pose?

A

o What objectives should learners achieve?
o What learning activities will assist learners to achieve these objectives?
o How should the curriculum be organized?
o How should learner achievement be evaluated?

196
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what is the standard measurement process?

A

− Use the assessment data to identify evaluation outcomes and goals.
− Develop an evaluation design and strategy.
− Select and construct measurement tools.
− Analyze data.
− Report data.

197
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what is program evaluation?

A

the systematic assessment of program results and, if possible, the assessment of how the program caused them.

198
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are the levels results may occur when evaluating?

A

the program
what was learned
what was transferred to the job
the impact on the organization

199
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are the categories of evaluation?

A

o Program evaluation assesses the effect of a learning program.
o Learning transfer evaluation measures the learner’s ability to use what they’ve learned on the job.

200
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what is formative evaluation?

A

it occurs throughout the design of any talent development solution
aims at improving the draft learning program
includes pilot tests, beta tests, technical reviews with SMEs, production reviews, and stakeholder reviews

201
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what is summative evaluation?

A

occurs after a talent development solution has been delivered.
o It focuses on the results or impact of the talent development solution to provide evidence about the value of a program.
o It includes standardized tests, participant reaction forms, stakeholder satisfaction surveys, and final return on investment (ROI).

202
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are Kirkpatrick’s 4 levels of evaluation?

A

− Level 1: Reaction
− Level 2: Learning
− Level 3: Behavior
− Level 4: Results

203
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are the 6 types of data yielded in Phillip’s Return on Investment Model?

A 
o Level 1: reaction and planned action
o Level 2: learning
o Level 3: application and implementation
o Level 4: business impact
o Level 5: return on investment
Level 6 - intangible measures
204
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are the data sources for ROI?

A

o standard values
o historical costs
o input from internal or external experts on a particular measure
o participant estimates
o supervisor and manager estimates
o links to other measures that have already been converted to monetary value
o talent development staff estimates.

205
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what is the Brinkerhoff Success Case Method (SCM)?

A

The SCM involves identifying the most and least successful cases in a program and examining them in detail.

206
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are the key steps in the Success Case Method (SCM)?

A

focusing and planning a success case study
o creating an “impact model” that defines what success should look like
o designing and implementing a survey to search for best and worst cases
o interviewing and documenting success cases
o communicating findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

207
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what is the balanced scorecard approach?

A

a way for organizations to evaluate effectiveness with more than financial measures.

208
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are the 4 perspectives in the balanced scorecard approach?

A

o The customer perspective
o The innovation and learning perspective
o The internal business perspective
o The financial perspective

209
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are evaluation approaches?

A 
− Cost-benefit analysis
− Culturally responsive evaluation
− Developmental evaluation
− HPT evaluation model
− Lean six sigma
− Predictive learning analytics
− Return on expectations
− Robinson’s training for impact
− Six sigma
− Total quality management (TQM)
210
Q 
EVALUATING IMPACT
these are examples of what?
− Cost-benefit analysis
− Culturally responsive evaluation
− Developmental evaluation
− HPT evaluation model
− Lean six sigma
− Predictive learning analytics
− Return on expectations
− Robinson’s training for impact
− Six sigma
− Total quality management (TQM)
A

evaluation approaches

211
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what factors can help to construct better evaluation instruments?

A

validity
readability
test difficulty

212
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

when determining which evaluation instruments/tools to use, the TD pro should determine what?

A

o the purpose the tool will serve
o the format or media to be used to present and track results
o the ranking or rating scale to be used
o the demographics needed
o how to capture comments and suggestions
o the degree of flexibility the tool needs
o how the tool will be distributed
o the timeframe
o how the results will be tracked, monitored, and reported
o how the results will be communicated
o how to reach a high level of return.

213
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

when creating surveys, questionnaires, and interview guide instruments, what should you consider?

A

o Be certain that the questions are directly connected to the measurement plan
o Determine whether any definitions or other standards exist that need to be clarified
o Decide whether reading ability or a second language is a concern
o Explore whether to use a pilot test on the instrument.

214
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are the four areas of need you should conduct a needs assessment for?

A

o business needs
o performance needs
o learning needs
o learner needs.

215
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are the four levels of evaluation? also known as an evaluation strategy?

A

o learner reaction
o knowledge and skill mastery
o behavior
o results.

216
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are some data collection tools?

A 
− Surveys and questionnaires
− Analytics from technology platforms
− Examinations, assessments, and tests
− Self-evaluations
− Simulations and observations
− Archival or extant data
217
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what do you do to develop an evaluation strategy?

A

− Know how to design research methods.
− Determine which results to measure and how to measure.
− Identify the business drivers and performance needs.
− Choose the evaluation methods.

218
Q

EVALUATING IMPACT

what are some analysis methods?

A 
− Return on investment (ROI) analysis
− Cost-benefit analysis
− Benefit-cost ratio
− Utility analysis
− Forecasting

PTD (3 decks)

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