Design arguments

Question 1

What are design arguments

Answer 1

• Inductive (the existence of God is likely, based on the premises)
• A posteriori (based on experience of the universe)
• Teleologicial Arguments attempting to identify various empirical features of the world
• That constitute evidence of intelligent design
• Which infers God’s existence as the best explanation for these features

Question 2

What is Aquinas’ argument from analogy

Answer 2

• Compares the natural world which appears to have a purpose and goal
• With human activity which does have a purpose and a goal
• He uses the analogy of an archer speeding to its target
• The arrow is an inanimate object which lacks intelligence and purpose to move itself
• Therefore the nature of it’s flight indicates the action of an intelligent archer
• A flower has a purpose to reproduce
• The flower cannot themselves move towards that goal
• Therefore there must be an intelligent designer that moves the flower towards is goal

Question 3

Outline Aquinas’ argument from analogy

Answer 3

1. Things that lack intelligence such as simple organisms have an end goal
2. Things that lack intelligence cannot move towards their end goal unless they are directed by someone with knowledge and intelligence
3. For example, an arrow cannot direct itself towards its target
4. The arrow needs an archer to provide direction
5. Therefore by analogy, there must be some intelligent being which directs all unintelligent natural things towards their end goal
6. This being is God

Question 4

Paley’s watch analogy

Answer 4

• Paley imagines himself walking across a heath and coming across a stone and a watch
• He then questions how both the objects came to be here
• For the stone, he thinks that it may have been there forever
• However in the case of the watch, that answer is unsatisfactory and needs further explanation
• A watch has several parts
• The parts are framed and work together for a purpose
• The parts have been made with specific material for their action
• The parts produce regulated motion when functioning together
• If the parts were different in any other way the motion would not be produced
• Therefore the watch has evidence of contrivance (Design)
• Therefore there must be a designer of the watch

Question 5

Paley’s nature/eye analogy

Answer 5

• Similarly we can observe the criteria of design in nature
• We can also see that design in nature surpasses human design
• For example the human eye contains intricacy, complexity and a specific purpose (to see)
• If the eye was designed any other way, the purpose of sight would not be produced

Question 6

Paley’s universe analogy

Answer 6

• The various components of the universe are suited to fuilfil and show incredible degrees of complexity
• Therefore the complexity and purpose of the natural world and universe suggests existence of a designer
• However the complexity of the universe is on a more ‘wondrous scale’
• In other words the complexity of the universe is much vaster compared to a watch
• This would exceed the possibility that the universe is a product of human design
• Therefore it must be the work of a supremely powerful and intelligent designer
• This designer is God

Question 7

Paley’s design argument

Answer 7

1.A watch has certain complex features
•E.g it consists of parts which each have a function and work together for a purpose
2.Anything which exhibits these features must have been designed
3.From 1 and 2 we can infer that the watch has been designed by a designer
4.The universe is like the watch:
•It possesses the same features on a far more wondrous scale
5.From 4 and 2: we can infer that the universe, like the watch, has been designed by a wondrous universe maker
6.This universe maker is God

Question 8

Paley’s anticipated criticism and response

1.No knowledge of watchmaking

Answer 8

• We may have never seen a watchmaker at work or a the design process of a watch
• Therefore we cannot conclude how the watch came to be
• Similarly, we do not have knowledge of how the world was created
• Therefore we cannot know how the world was made
• Paley argues that we do not need experience of the design process to infer a designer exists
• When we look at ancient crafts we can conclude that someone existed with skills to create these crafts
• Therefore we can conclude that there has been design without experience of the process

Question 9

Paley’s anticipated criticism and response

2.Faults in the watch

Answer 9

• It is possible to observe problems in the functioning of the watch
• For example irregularity or the watch telling the incorrect time
• Similarly evil exists in the world
• This suggests a flaw in the design of the world
• However it is still possible to observe details of design in the watch while flaws exist
• The faults of the world (evil) does not mean the design does not exist

Question 10

Paley’s anticipated criticism and response

3.Some parts of the watch lack purpose

Answer 10

• Some parts of the watch may have no apparent purpose
• Purpose is an essential part of design
• If parts lack purpose this invalidates the idea of design
• This is because it is nonsensical that a designer would include parts with no purpose
• Paley responds that all parts have a purpose
• However we do not always know the purpose of some parts
• For example there may be a part of the watch that seems pointless
• However when the part is removed the mechanism fails to work

Question 11

Paley’s anticipated criticism

4.Features of design can be explained by random processes

Answer 11

• There are features of design that can be explained without a designer
• For example the watch may have arised merely out of a possible combination of material forms
• Therefore the structure of the watch may have come together purely from random processes
• For example the watch may have come together from natural processes such as from the ‘law of metallic nature’
• This suggests that the watch could be explained without reference to a designer

Question 12

Paley’s formulation and response to the 4th anticipated criticism

Answer 12

1.Paley supposes that the watch is some type of watchmaking machine
2.This means the watch is capable of making other watches with all the same features that it has
3.This means that the watch-machine itself was previously made by a watch-machine and so on
4.The watch-making machine still has the same features of contrivance each time
•For example ordered and regulated parts with a purpose
5.However there is still evidence of design no matter how far back we go
6.Therefore there is still evidence of design
7.Therefore there is still a designer

Question 13

Hume’s criticisms of the design argument

1.We have no experience of world-making

Answer 13

• To know what has brought something about, we need experience of its being brought about
• Physical objects can be compared to other physical objects
• For example we can infer design from ancient crafts by comparing it to objects from today
• This is because we can have knowledge of how these crafts were brought about
• However we cannot compare the experience of our universe to another universe that has been designed
• This is because we lack experience of how the universe was brought about
• Therefore we have no grounds to conclude that there is a being that designed our universe

Question 14

Hume’s criticisms of the design argument

2.Arguments from analogy are weak

Answer 14

• Arguments from analogy can only be reliable when both things have relevant similarities
• For example it takes many years of trial and error to produce a final product in the case of complex machines
• If we use this analogy to compare our world:
• Then our world would be a product of a long line of ‘draft’ universes
• Therefore it would be possible that our current universe can be replaced by a better one in the future
• This analogy shows that the designer would be imperfect as many preliminary universes would be needed for a perfect one to be in place
• Hume argues that the universe is more organic than it is mechanical
• Therefore it is more probable to say that the universe grew rather than made
• We could say that the universe is more like a giant vegetable than a watch
• It may appear absurd to compare the universe to a giant vegetable
• However the same can be said about the machine analogy
• Therefore both analogies are flawed
• Therefore arguments from analogy are weak

Question 15

Hume’s criticisms of the design argument

3.The Epicurean hypothesis

Answer 15

• We can use the idea of the Epicurean hypothesis
• This hypothesis states that given eternity, a finite number of particles be ordered at some point
• When these particles are ordered, a type of equilibrium will form
• This shows that design can occur through random processes

Question 16

Hume’s criticisms of the design argument

4.The argument does not demonstrate the existence of a perfect being

Answer 16

• We can use the idea that ‘like effects have like causes’
• By using these ideas we can bring out many absurdities of the comparison Paley makes
• Complex machines usually have multiple designers instead of one
• Therefore it is possible that the universe was created by many deities instead of one
• For example the universe could be explained by many powerful but imperfect beings
• Therefore the argument does not demonstrate the existence of a perfect being

Question 17

Kant’s 1st criticism of design arguments

Answer 17

• The design argument’s conclusion is not enough to prove the existence of God
• He accepts the premise that ‘evidence of a watch’s design implies a watchmaker’
• However we can only conclude that the maker designed and put together the structure of the watch
• We cannot conclude that the watchmaker created the material
• Even though the watchmaker makes the watch, the maker did not create the watch out of nothing
• The watchmaker used pre-existing material to make the product
• If we apply this to the universe, evidence of the universe’s design only suggests a worldly architect
• We cannot conclude that this architect created the individual components of the universe out of nothing
• Therefore we can only conclude that there is a worldly architect that designed the universe
• We cannot conclude that there is a creator of the universe
• Therefore the design argument fails to show that a God of classical theism exists

Question 18

Kant’s 2nd criticism of design arguments

Answer 18

• The argument can only work if we imagine what qualities are needed for a watchmaker to construct a watch
• We then have to enhance these attributes until they are of sufficient magnitude to account for the universe’s design
• This does not show us anything about the designers attributes
• For example, a watchmaker may have skill and knowledge
• But this does not prove that the watchmaker is an omnipotent, omniscient and benevolent being
• Similarly the designer of the universe may have skill and knowledge
• However this does not prove that God is omnipotent, omniscient or benevolent
• Therefore a God of classical theism is not proven to exist using the design argument

Question 19

Darwin’s criticism

Answer 19

• Darwin proposes the idea of natural selection
• This describes the idea that there are characteristics that enable an organism to survive
• This allows the organism to evolve over generations
• This suggests that apparent design can be a result of random and natural processes
• For example, Paley gives the example of how the human eye’s intricacy could only be explained by design
• However Darwin argues that the the perfectly adapted features of the eye was required for organisms to compete, survive and reproduce
• Therefore the complexity of the eye has come about over billions of years of random mutations and survival of the fittest organisms
• Therefore a skilled designer is not required to explain the complexity of the eye

Question 20

Outline Swinburne’s design argument

Answer 20

1.Regularities of succession can occur both as natural phenomena(natural laws) and free human action(attending class on time)
2.Regularities of succession in the human world can be explained by the rational choices of a free agent
(e.g arranging a time and place to meet on a date)
3.Regularities of succession relating to the laws of nature(gravity) cannot be explained scientifically
(gravity can’t be proven by other natural laws e.g time)
4.Regularities of succession can be explained by the rational choice of a free agent by analogy
5.The universe and and its natural laws are immense and complex
6.Therefore regularities of succession in the natural world can only be explained by a free agent
7.This free agent must have immense intelligence, power, disembodiment and freedom needed to bring about such order in the universe

Question 21

Swinburne’s design argument explained

Answer 21

• Swinburne makes the distinction between spatial order and regularities of succession (temporal order)
• Spatial order is the way things are arranged in space
• Regularities of succession is the way things behave in time
• Most design arguments (such as Paley’s) rely on spatial order to prove God’s existence
• This leaves theme vulnerable to Darwin’s theory of evolution:
• The theory of natural selection can explain how things can be arranged without reference to God
• Swinburne revised his argument to avoid the criticisms of Aquinas’ proof and evidence of natural or random processes

Question 22

Swinburne’s responses to Hume’s criticisms

1.Worldmaking

Answer 22

• Hume argues that we have no experience of world making
• However Swinburne argues science has made progress by developing theories for unobserved things
• E.g complexity of protein molecules needed for life cannot have evolved over time
• Therefore it must have been designed
• This suggests that Hume has an outdated view on science

Question 23

Swinburne’s responses to Hume’s criticisms

2.Random process

Answer 23

•Appearance of design through random process can be explained by regularities of
co-presence
(spatial order)
•For example the complexity of the eye can be explained by the theory of evolution
•However random processes cannot explain regularities of succession
•The theory of evolution relies on the laws of nature to be explained
•Natural laws such as gravity cannot be explained by random processes

Question 24

Swinburne’s responses to Hume’s criticisms

3.No perfect being

Answer 24

• Swinburne already agrees that his argument does not prove a perfect being
• However he still argues that a free, intelligent and rational being is proven from his argument
• Therefore his conclusion is not damaged

Question 25

Swinburne’s responses to Hume’s criticisms

4.Arguments from analogy are weak

Answer 25

•Swinburne accepts this

Question 26

Strengths of Swinburne’s arguments

Answer 26

• It avoids the challenge of evolution by using regularities of succession instead of regularities of co-presence
• It concedes limitations yet inductively proves the existence of an immensely intelligent and powerful, disembodied, free rational agent

Question 27

Weaknesses of Swinburne’s argument

Answer 27

• It does not prove the existence of a perfect being or God of classical theism
• It uses an analogy which can be seen as weak:
• One similarity does not prove all similarities

Question 28

Strengths of design arguments

Answer 28

• Inductive and strict philosophical logic
• Supported by scientific examples
• E.g complexity of protein molecules needed for life cannot have evolved over time
• Therefore it must have been designed
• Okham’s razor- the simplest solution is usually the correct one (the idea of God is more simple than complex natural laws)
• Many examples in nature to draw upon (eye analogy)

Question 29

Weaknesses of the design argument

Answer 29

• Inductive arguments can only make the conclusion likely
• This means that a definite truth can never be established
• Darwin’s theory can explain design by natural processes with evidence
• Multiverse theory:
• There could be infinite universes each with randomly different laws
• Therefore this universe could have developed the conditions required for life
• Hume, Kant