Depth 1: Agriculture and industry, 1949-65

Question 1

Early changes in agriculture 1949-57?

Answer 1

• Chinese economy largely dependant on agriculture, but backward and inefficient
• Mao wanted China to be a modern superpower (had a history of being exploited e.g. Opium wars)
• Mao believed that a modern industry was key to true socialism, not improving the living standard of peasants but urban population
• Collectivisation was about sharing to create true communism
• 1949 = Mao ‘Chinese people had step up’, no longer ‘sick man of Asia’. New ‘Red Emperor’.

Question 2

Attacks on landlords and re-distribution of land?

Answer 2

• Peasants, not workers, cld act as ‘vanguards of the revolution’. Desperate desire from escape of poverty made them useful

Question 3

Agarian land reform?

Answer 3

• Agarian land reform law (1950) = Mao launched the major agricultural policy. Main aim was to Destry gentry landlord class. Property sized, many killed, land redistributed ‘to the tiller’. Mao need create illusion of ‘ruling class’

Problems:
- Coherent national policy problematic

• North, communists control prior 1949 land reform begun. But only 10-15% farmers rented land
• Some areas of com control, peasants (some) already owned land
• South previously GMD, communists were weak and landlords were dominant
• Sometimes organised by clans with variating classes. Communists lacked influence.

Question 4

Attacks on landlords?

Answer 4

• Work teams and party cadres from Newley liberated cities sent out to countryside organise land reform
• Organise those into Poor Peasant Associations
• Landlords subject to ‘struggle meetings’ (forced to admit crimes as ‘class enemies’
• Class-consciousness

Question 5

(Success of the agricultural policies for the peasantry)

Impact of land reform?

Answer 5

• Summer 1952, ‘land to tiller movement’ largely done
• Around 88% households taken part, 43% land redistributed to 60% of population
• Rural production boomed
• 1950 and 1952, agriculture reduction increased at a rate of 15% per annum
• -an estimated 1 to 2 million landlords were executed
• by the end of 1951 10 million landlords had lost their land and about 40% of the land had changed hands.

However: this meant that the peasantry had established themselves as a new class of landowners thus moving away from Mao’s desired socialist state. This meant that enforced collectivisation would take place.

Question 6

Agriculture co-operation?

Answer 6

• CCP and peasants had different expectations of land reform policy
• Peasants = long held dream of owning land free from exploitation
• CCP = first step to creating truly socialist nation. Feed urban industrial workforce
• Liu Shaoqi, Vice Chairmen of CCP

Question 7

What is meant by collectivisation?

Answer 7

Introduced in December 1951, Collectivisation is essentially the forcing of farmers to re-organise farms into much larger ‘collective ones. Characterised by sharing tools, food, living space etc to meet the government target production levels and stagnate agriculture.

Question 8

What are Mutual aid teams (MATs)?

Answer 8

• Land ownership not meet targets
• December 1951, CCP introduced co-operative ownership of land (collectivisation)
• Focus to not repeat what Stalin did with eliminating the Kulaks.
• 1951, groups of ten or less families encouraged to unite to form MATs, managed by peasant associations.
• Those outside MAT’s struggled.

Question 9

What were peasant associations?

Answer 9

Formed in 1920s to help peasants retain rights. Revived by work teams in the 1950s.

Question 10

What were APCs?

Answer 10

• 1952, successful MATs encouraged to combine and form Agricultural Producers Co-operatives from 40-50 families
• Land could be pooled > consolidate into larger units, but still allowed to hold some private land
• All profits shared at the end of the year

Question 11

Results of APCs?

Answer 11

• Only 14% peasants joined APCs
• June 1955 only 16.9 million peasants households were in APCs out of 110 million
• In the south APCs did not appear until 1954
• First Five Year Plan assumed 23% increase in agricultural production > over the period it was only a 3.8% per annum increase
• Mao called for a slow down in spring 1953, but stabilised again in 1954 resulting In peasants selling land and food. This rejection of socialist values infuriated Mao > ‘rash retreat’
• January 1955 Mao called for u turn of ‘stop, contract, develop’ calling for a halt in the APC development for the next 18 months
• 6 months later July 1955, made mind to go all out collectivisation when he announced it at a Conference of Local party Secretaries. 17 million households in APCs in July 1955 grew to 75 million by January 1956. End of yr only 3% private. > Maos official reason was because of a ‘Socialist upsurge in the Countryside’ (demands of peasantry), but it was most likely Mao fear of supplies.

Question 12

Disagreements over collectivisation?

Answer 12

• Graudalits e.g. Zhou Enlai claimed the country not ready.
• Mao disagreed and claimed exporting food was the only way China was able to pay for advanced technology from Soviets. By July 1955 he demanded the increase in pace
• February 1955 = parity central committee ‘peasants individual economy exist long time’

Question 13

Who was Chen Boda?

Answer 13

• 1904-89

- Political secretary and in charge of organising propaganda

Question 14

Growth of the APCs?

Answer 14

• December 1955 = 63.3% peasant households involved
• 4% compromise of 200 to 300 households
• January 1956 = 80.3% households in APCs and 30.7% in higher level ones
• Private ownership abolished

Question 15

What were the Communes?

Answer 15

• peoples property taken away
• 1956 = Mao emboldened by successes of co-operatives
• first commune = Sputnik had been established in Henan province in April 1958 (27 collectives merged, 9,000 households under control)
• Mao used the term ‘People’s commune’ in reflection of Paris commune of 1871.
• Agricultural output increased on by 3.8% over previous year
• Grain production only increase 1% in 1957 and rationing of cotton + cloth was introduced
• 70% CCP from rural backgrounds
• ‘Walking on two legs’ > developing industry and agriculture at the same time
• production of steel and grain were given pirotiies (grain feed workers who make steel > ‘General grain’ producer ‘General Steel’
• Over ambitious radicalism prove disastrous as between 1958 and 1962 (Great famine) of approx 30 million dead

Question 16

The abolition of private farming?

Answer 16

• August 1958 > Politburo resolution declared peoples communes ‘basic social units of communist society’
• First commune in Henan province, 1958. ‘Sputnik Commune’
• By end of yr 750,000 co-ops re-organised into 26,000 communes. 99% peasants in communes. This is a total of 120 million households.

Question 17

The organisation of communes?

Answer 17

• 5,500 households
• Agricultural and industrial production
• Health care and education
• Massmobilisation
• Communes produced own food so had a self-reliance
• Pooling of recourse
• Propaganda celebrate ‘Iron Women’. 90% Women laboured in agriculture between 1958 and 1959.

-Once Commune set up its impossible to move elsewhere without an internal passport (slaves)

Question 18

What was the reality of communes?

Answer 18

• Forced into one location
• easily target people with propaganda
• ‘brigades’ and ‘platoons’
• 15 to 50yrs had to be in commune militia (police)
• Traditional life ruined e.g. rating child, eating…
• Production did not really rise

Question 19

What was the four pests campaign?

Answer 19

• 1958
• Target Sparrows, Rats, Flies and Moscquitos
• Party activists encouraged the peasants to take part
• Pots and pans
• Small reward for bodies
• Peasants became distracted from the crops and the caterpillar population just increased which meant they ate more of them

Question 20

What is Lysenkoism?

Answer 20

• Ukrainian Lysenko, agricultural scientist Stalin relied upon in the 1930s famine
• 1958 it was made an official policy, where Mao drafted an 8 point programme based on its ideas
• Some common sense i.e. use new tools, new breeds and seeds, improved field management, increased irrigation, but others (close planting, deep ploughing, increased fertilisation and pest control) extremely dangerous especially if ll used together which was Mao’s directive.
• Peasants wasted hours banging pots and pans together to prevent birds from landing, until they exhausted from the sky, but seriously upset ecological balance. Ones birds ate e.g. locus multiple uncontrollably and destroyed plants and also Rats which destroyed grain stocks.
• Focus on increased fertilisation led destruction of thousands of peasants’ homes, which ploughed into ground with animal dung. Supposed to supply accommodation but just left to seek shelter wherever available.

Question 21

The First Five Year Plan definition?

Answer 21

The 1st 5 yr plan, introduced in 1953-57, was a closely mirrored Soviet approach, characterised by the centralising of heavy industry. Trade embargo’s were imposed by the west due to the Korean War so the Chinese needed Russia’s support

Needed reduce the annual inflation rate of 1,000% that they inherited + conquering nationalist unrest.

Question 22

(1st 5 yr)

The USSR’s support?

Answer 22

• Sino-Soviet mutual assistance treaty of February 1950
• 1953 Russia support China 5yr plans e.g. construction of 156 industrial enterprises, 7 iron and steel plants, 24 electrical power station, 63 machinery plants (with some made in the union)
• over 10,000 civilian technicians brought their spcifialist knowledge of civil engineering, industry, governmental organisation and higher educationn. > salaries paid by Chinese and they were housed, in closely guarded compounds (similar to European concessions in imperial times)
• 28,000 Chinese technicians studied in Russia
• Loan of $300 million for next 5 yrs to be repaid with interest, China as seuctirty had to hand over large amount of Bullion stocks
• Chinese delegations also visited Moscow to be trained in propaganda techniques and governmental organisation
• Buldings in ‘Soviet brutalist’ style, Russian only foreign and taught in schools and lunch hour pushed by to 3pm to copy Russian practice of having six consecutive morning classes. TASS > ‘The Soviet Unions today is our tomorrow’

Question 23

(1st 5 yr)

What were the targets?

Answer 23

• High rate of growth
• Invest in advanced technology
• Contrast modern industrial plants
• autarkic state
• 1953 planned to procure 22 million tonnes of grain
• Control of markers and fixed process
• Transform to socialist state
• Make China hostile to the capitalist world
• By forcing collective farms to sell food at low process to he gov, it keep industrial workers wages low (cheap food readily available)
• ‘five-antis’ campaign made it possible, in early 1956, to bring end to private ownership entirely.

Question 24

(1st 5 yr)

Successes?

Answer 24

• According to official statistics, most sectors of economy succeeded in reaching their targets. Annual growth rate about 9% per year during the plan
• Urban living standards improved in terms of wages and job security, though at the expense of a loss of freedom to change jobs and travel. More people migrating to cities, where the population grew from 57 million in 1949 to 100 million by 1957
• However, figures unlikely to be comlpeltey reliable as they tend to exaggerate levels of production to please their superiors similarly in a way like cadres in the communes covered up true state of affairs. Also Quantity of quality emphasis
• Coal (mil tonnes), 1952 was 68.50 and 1957 was 130 (target 113). Steel in 1952 was 1.25 in 1957 was 5.35 (target 4.12). Trucks in 1952 is 0, 1957 was 7,500 (target 4,000), Cement 1952 was 2.86 and 1957 was 5.86 (target 6)
• -industrial output grew 15.5% per year which outstripped the target of 14.7%
• heavy industry nearly tripled for example industrial production in Manchuria more than outstripped its pre-civil war peak.

Question 25

(1st 5 yr)

Failures?

Answer 25

• Less half children under 16 in full time education
• managerial level, many of the economic planners who worked for Nationalists had remained in place after 1949, but by time it began ‘anti’ campaigns of 1951-52 had driven out many of them and the standard of beaurcpatic administration suffered as a result.
• Competition of reduces between private and state owned enterprises was not resolved until ending of private ownership in 1956
• More neg than pos consequences in countryside > communes short of food because it was exported to Russia to pay for the Soviet advice, and sold cheaply in cities to feed workers. Ironic twist that Lysenkoism, what Russia advice payed for, was making peasants lives worse.

Question 26

Definition of Second 5yr plan?

Answer 26

• The Second Five Year Plan formed part of the Great Leap Forward, which was announced at the Eighth CCP congress in May 1958. While agriculture was to be modernised by the development of the People’s Communes, ambitious new targets for industrial growth were to be pursued at the same time.

Question 27

(2nd 5 yr)

Why did Mao launch it?

Answer 27

• Desperate to transform China into great economic power. ‘great Leap’ is quick. Mao impatient at relatively slow pace of economic progress. He did not want to go through normal processes.
• In February, the responsibility for economic panning had been moved from the state to the party, why its not a ‘plan’. Did not involve planners announcing carefully though out targets that specific industrial sectors expected to reach. Instead, usually led to the initiative of the local cadres and direction from above came in form of slogans and threats.
• China leading communist nation in Asia
• Overtake Britain in 15yrs
• Industrial production had risen by 18.3% which was very convincing
• Appeared the communists were winning the Cold War aka 1957 Sputnik
• Idea of ‘Walking on two legs’
• Reliance on the peoples sheer will power
• Conservatives e.g. Zhou Enlai and Chen Yun advocated a ‘carrot’ approach of rewarding high food producers with material incentives (more consumer goods and higher food prices). Hardliners called for punitive measures as low prices and requisitioning of food (the stick). Industry not yet producing enough consumer goods for first option. Second too risky. Arguments about best way forward not been won so its not rational economic planning.

Question 28

(2nd 5 yr)

Successes?

Answer 28

• Irrigation make land more fertile
• Construction projects changed the face of Chinese cities e.g. Tiananmen square was remodelled
• People in communes lived closer to a communistic model than ever before
• Coal increased from 131 in 1957 to 200 in 1964. Steel increased from 5.4 in 1957 to 10 in 1964. Oil increased from 1.5 in 1957 to 7 in 1964. However, Cotton cloth decreased from 5 mil to 4.

Question 29

(2nd 5yr)

Failures?

Answer 29

• Targets absurd
• Government officials wanted to impress Mao to improve their careers
• Mao let himself be convinced mass mobilisation would overcome obstacles
• By 1962 China was only producing half the amount of heavy industrial goods and three quoters the amount of light industrial goods that were being made in 1958 + Kurshchev withdrew experts in 1960
• After purges 1950 no one challenged Mao
• Anti-rightest campaign meant there was no intellectuals or experts
• Backyard furnaces > melted produced extremely poor and useless. Economy breakdown and food left to rote in fields
• 1962 industrial production decrease by 40% of 1958-59 levels

Question 30

The Lushan conference?

Answer 30

• July, 1959
• officially called by Mao to assess the progress of the GLF as it reached its end of first year. However, he was clearly expecting trouble as Brought Jiang as she had influence over Shanghai wing of party
• Minister of defence (Peng Dehuai) voiced doubts
• ‘the second leap’ > parotuclar agricultural policies pushed on with speed
• Only Mao could criticise Mao so it became dictatorship. the conference made this clear

Question 31

(3rd 5 yr)

Liu, Deng and economic reform

Answer 31

• Retreat of GLF began in 1960, speeded up in 1962 when Liu and Deng put in charge
• 1962 to 1965
• Communes broken up and closed down inefficient projects and more realistic coal/steel targets being set
• Relaxation of persecution of intellectuals and experts as realised needed
• Chen Yun mainly responsible for 3rd 5 yr
• Centralised control
• Mao described the retreat as dangerous revisionism (any course action that betrayed communism)
• Agricultural production recovered to 1957 levels, oil and natural gas rocketed and manufacture goods got better
• 1964 = Chinese atomic bomb
• Mao = conference 7,000 cadres January 1962. Liu say Mao should share the blame for GLF. Liu knew he had the approval of the conference. First time Mao’s aura of infallibility had been damaged.
• Clear separation in party emerged. On the right of the party Liu, Deng, and Chen Yun took pragmatic approach the mass mobilisation was no substitute for intellect. Mao returned in 1962 at annual party conference saying is China to take ‘the socialist road or capilist road’. Led up to the 1966 cultural rev

Question 32

The Great Famine?

Answer 32

• 1958-62
• Mao announced at CCP central committee in Dec 1958 at Wuhan that countryside successfully collectivised in 26,000 communes. Also declared harvest figure for the year had been 430 million tonnes of grain (figure party even thought stupidly high and revised it down to 375 million before making it public)
• real figure was close to 200 million tonnes. Same meeting Mao also announced stepping down as chariaman of PRC but still chairman of party and instead handed over to Liu Shaoqi. (way to shift blame onto others if go sour, tactical retreat)
• July 1959 Mao called a special party conference in Lushan which clear sign he knew it was coming. Only Peng Dehuai spoke out. Peng sacked and replaced with Lin BIiao (head of PLA) in Politburo. Mao did ‘second leap’ that only intensified the famine.
• 1980 gov offcilary admitted it occurred, approximately 30 million, high-test estimates 50 million. Tibet, 25% of population of four million wiped out. Gov made them grow wrong crops but this to destroy Tobet’s cultural identity

Question 33

How did the second five year plan work?

Answer 33

Decentralisation:
- are freedom to local party officials cadres to harness energies of the masses, who Mao regarded as China’s greatest single asset. This was instead of state bureaucrats who would hold back the pace

Backyard furnaces:

• produce as much steel as possible
• Mao announced in Autumn 1957 that steel production would quadruple onside next 4yrs, to reach 20 mill tonnes per annum
• Steel target for 1958 was raised from 6 to eight million tonnes at the party congress in May, then again to 10.7 million tonnes in September. Once clear cld not be met by steel plants Mao launched the backyard furnace
• practically every town and village got involved, extent that night sky was turned red by the fires and by day smoke covered sun. October wit was 49% of steel of country and reckoned quarter of population abandoned normal activities to take part
• 1959 realise the steel produced was shit and can’t be used. Led to crops ignored and burning of woodland which led to faster soil erosion and worse flooding

Question 34

(Mao not solely to blame)

Weather conditions caused GLF?

Answer 34

• typhoons caused flooding in South China and there were droughts that reduced the flow of the yellow river by two thirds.
• 8 out of the 12 main rivers in the shandong province dried up
• over 2 million people died through drowning or because the crops were destroyed.

However: backyard furnaces caused people to cut down forests for fuel which just significantly worsened the flooding.