Demography Flashcards
Define the term ‘birth rate’.
The number of live births per thousand of population per year.
There has been a long time decline in births since 1900- from 20.87 in that
year to 11.1 in 2019 however there have also been several baby booms in that time.
Explain the patterns in births.
There was a trough in the number of births during the world war as men were absent and a peak right after as men returned from the war. Contraception became more readily available in the 60s and 70s which led to a decline in the birth rate. The birth rate is lower than in the past for a number of reasons, but most importantly the changed position of women.
Explain what the total fertility rate means.
The average number of children women will have during their fertile years. The UK’s TFR in 2016 was 1.8 births per woman which is lower than it used to be- in 1964 the peak was 2.95 children. The changes in fertility and birthrate reflect that more women are remaining childless than in the past. Replacement fertility is 2.1, so the UK has below replacement fertility.
Name the reasons for the decline in birth rate.
Changes in women’s position
Decline in the infant mortality rate
Children are now an economic liability
Child centredness
Reliable contraception
Explain changes in women’s position as a reason for the decline in the birth rate.
Changes in the position of women:
- legal equality with men; the right to vote,
- increased educational opportunities
- more women in paid employment
- Changes in attitudes to family life and women’s role
- Easier access to divorce
- Access to abortion and reliable contraception = more control over their fertility
Explain the decline in the infant mortality rate as a reason for the decline in the birth rate.
The IMR measures the number of infants who die before their first birthday before per 1000 babies born alive, per year.
The IMR is now less than 1/40th of its 1900 figure. This could be because of improved housing and sanitation, better nutrition of both children and mothers, better knowledge of child health and welfare and improved services for mothers and children. Medical factors such as mass immunisation against childhood diseases have also contributed to the fall in the IMR.
Explain children as an economic liability as a reason for the decline in the birth rate.
Up until the late 19th century, children were viewed as being economic assets to their parents as they could be sent out to work at an early age to earn money however children are now an economic liability, costing an average of 230,000 pounds a year. This is because of:
Laws banning child labour, introducing mandatory schooling and raising the school leaving age.
Changing norms about what children have the right to expect from parents in material terms.
What are the effects of changes in fertility on the family?
Smaller family sizes increases the likelihood of the dual earner couple as women are able less likely to have to stay at home with their children and are able to go out to work.
What are the effects of changes in fertility on the dependency ratio?
A fall in the number of children being born reduces the burden of dependency on the working population as children make up a large part of the dependent ration of the population.
However, the fall in the birth rate means the next working population will be smaller and so the burden of dependency might increase again.
What are the effects of changes in fertility on public services and policies?
Fewer schools, maternity and child health services may be needed however this is dependent on political decisions- for example, instead of fewer schools the government could opt to reduce class sizes.
Explain improved nutrition as a reason for the fall in the death rate.
McKeown argues that improved nutrition has accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates and was particularly important in reducing the number of deaths caused by TB. Better nutrition led to an increased resistance to infection and increased chance of survival for those who were infected.
However, he dos not explain why females live longer despite being given a smaller share of food and he failed to explain why some infectious diseases actually rose at a time of improving nutrition.
Explain medical improvements as a reason for the fall in the death rate.
Before the 1950s, medical improvements did little in terms of reducing deaths from infectious diseases. After the 1950s improved medical knowledge, techniques and organisation such as the introduction of antibiotics, immunisation and blood transfusion led to a reduction in death rates. Medication and surgery have more recently made a big difference on the death rate- for example deaths from heart disease decreased by one third.
Explain smoking and diet as a reason for the fall in the death rate.
According to Harper, the greatest cause for the fall in the death rate is the fall in the number of smokers. However, while the number of smokers fell, obesity has taken its place as being the new lifestyle epidemic. Harper suggests we may be moving towards an ‘American’ health culture where lifestyles are unhealthy but a long lifespan is still achieved through the use of costly medication.
Explain public health measures as a reason for the fall in the death rate.
Improvements in housing, purer drinking water, laws to combat the adulteration of food and drink, the pasteurisation of milk and improved sewage disposal methods were all implemented in the 20th century by more effective central and local governments.
Explain other social changes as a reason for the fall in the death rate.
Other social changes that played a part in reducing the death rate during the 20th century include:
- The decline of dangerous manual occupations such as mining
- Smaller families= reduced rate of transmission of infection
- greater public medical knowledge
- lifestyle changes eg smoking
- higher incomes= healthier lifestyles
